West Bengal History

Bengal which is a region in the north-east part of the Indian sub continent has a rich historical heritage. Previously it constituted of the East Bengal and West Bengal as a whole until it was divided in the recent past. Bengal is one of the most densely populated parts of the world and its history which dates back to four millennia can be divided into ancient, medieval and modern. The history of Bengal played an important role in shaping the history of India.

There are historic references to the state that are found in the Vedic annals as well as the chronicles of the Murayan, Gupta and Mughal eras and the musty archives of the Pala and Sena dynasties. The first traces of West Bengal’s history are recorded to belong to the Vedic era when the state was inhabited by myriads of people of varying origin and ethnicity. The state was ruled by several chieftains during the epic Mahabharata period and was inhabited by the Aryans in the post-Vedic period that soon followed.

¤ Ancient History
Vedic age
West Bengal, the cultural hot seat of India that basks in the glory of the splendid Bengali culture is noted for its age-old history. The history of this ancient land dates as far back as the Vedic age and readers find ample mention of the triumphs and tribulations of its former monarchs in the chronicles of history. West Bengal was known as Vanga during the bygone eons of the venerable Vedas. Etymological studies suggest that the term Bengal, locally known, as Bangla owes its connotation to the name of a certain Dravidian tribe “Banga”. The hospitable state was inhabited by a multitude of people of mixed ethnicity and varying roots, which was responsible for the cultural diversity.

It is supposed that the Vedic era culminated with the settlement of the Aryans in West Bengal. This was followed by the glorious Mauryan rule and the triumphs and tribulations of the Palas, Pundras and Senas, the Islamic anarchy while the flourishing Mughal Empire led to the stunning climax of the oppressive British rule during India’s tragic days as a British colony.

Post Vedic Period
West Bengal’s pride lies in its rich cultural legacy that testifies the state’s age-old history. The annals of history contain evidences that date as far back as the Vedic era. It is generally supposed that the post Vedic period comment from the time when the Aryans settled on Bengal’s terrains. The chronicles of the Greek foreign travelers of 400 BC to 100 AD refer to an area known as Gangaridai, which has been supposed to be none other than the present Bengal. The etymological significance of Gangahrd is a Land with the Ganges in its heart. Thus according to mythology, Gangaridai is supposed to be the inception point of the world.

The post Vedic period gradually culminated in the glorious rule of the Pala and the Sena rulers under whose rule trade, commerce, religion and culture flourished in Bengal. Ancient Buddhist texts refer to the 16 Maha Janapadas that were the seat of Buddhist religion and culture.

¤ Medieval History
Palas
Chronicles of history indicate that the state of West Bengal flourished under the glorious rule under the monarchs of the Pala, Pundra and Sena dynasty. The Pala rulers played a momentous role in shaping history. The 400-year old Pala rule that continued almost up to 800.A.D. saw West Bengal as an established center of flourishing internal as well as maritime trade. Their trade links extended up to Taxila, Cambodia, Burma, Sri Lanka, the Deccan and the Persian Gulf.

The sudden rise of the Chandra dynasty escalated the downfall of the Pala dynasty whose last ruler, Madanapala breathed his last in 1611.A.D. Although the Pala rulers were Buddhists, they were patrons of Sanskrit Literature. Bhattanarayana’s Venisanghara, Vishakhadatta’s Mudraraksasa, Abhinanda ‘s Ramacharita and Bodhipradipa of Atisha Dipankara are some of the literary masterpieces produced during their tenure.

Pundras
The Pundra dynasty that ruled the territories of West Bengal and Bangladesh in the ancient times is shrouded in age-old history and mythology. Pundra, also recognized as Paundra or Paundraya is one of the renowned empires that established control over eastern India. Pundra dynasty is claimed to be the genesis of several renowned warrior tribes like the Pundir Rajputs of Telangana.

The Pundra dynasty and its rulers find adequate mention in the chronicles of the epic Mahabharata. The kingdom suffered defeat against Karna, Bhima and Arjuna. There are mythological references to Bhima’s conch that supposedly originated from Pundra and the Pundra rulers being one of the elite few to be called for the Pandava’s benefit by King Drupada prior to the battle of Kurukshetra.

Mauryan Empire
The state was a significant part of the empire of several eminent emperors of widespread territories. The renowned land of Magadha is one such kingdom in Bengal that was ruled by the monarchs of the Mauryan Empire. The obscure haze of ancient Indian history starts to fade from the 3rd century B.C. when we find records of the glorious Mauryan Empire ruled by the likes of legendary monarchs like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. From around 6th century B.C., a large portion of Bengal was a part of the Magadha kingdom. Magadha was also one of the 16 Maha Janapadas that gained prominence as an established center of Buddhist learning and culture.

Alexander the Great along with his massive army invaded India in 326. B.C. Prior to his invasion, the great Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan dynasty around Magadha. Chanakya (kautilya), the famed advisor of Chandragupta Maurya records that the emperor’s conquests of the territories of the Nanda Empire and the Macedonian Seleucid Empire lead to the formation of the Mauryan Empire. Another noted Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, famed for his humanitarian philanthropy and attempts to propagate Buddhism throughout the country, was responsible for the empire’s tremendous expansion to cover South Asia, Persia and Afghanistan.

Senas
The province was once upon a time ruled by several ancient dynasties of which the Senas or the Sens deserves special mention. The rulers of the Sena dynasty spearheaded the administration of Bengal from 1097 to1225.A.D. The Sena rulers were a worthy successor of the Palas and their rule was a landmark of Bengal’s history. Vijayasena who founded the Sena dynasty is credited with the foresight and acumen of seizing the opportunity that presented itself during the revolt of the Samantachakra in Mahipala II’s reign. Gradually, the Senas became dominant in the Western fringes of Bengal and set up their independent kingdom during Madanapala’s tenure.

It is the descendents of the Sena monarch Samantasena who ruled over the territorial expanse of Bengal. His son Hemantasena, a feudal lord was accorded the honor of Maharajadhiraja and Rajaraksasudaksah for his ability to take care of the welfare of his people with ease. Vijayasena, who exploited the weak spots that marred the strength of the Pala kingdom and established the autonomous Sena rule within the state, succeeded Hemanatsena. His successor Vallalasena was responsible for the final blow to the glorious Pala Empire, which crumbled during his tenure. Vallalasena is also credited with the establishment of Kulisnism in Bengal. The reign of Lakshmanasena, a staunch believer of the Vaishnava teachings blossomed in cultural effervescence when several literary masterpieces were produced. Keshav Sena is said to be the last Sena ruler following which Muslim anarchy engulfed Bengal.

Mughals
It was under the Mughals that Bengal became a recognized commercial hub in the country. The Muslims established control of the domicile of Bengal during early 13th century. Three centuries down the line, the disorderly lawlessness that prevailed in the state during the anarchic Muslim rule gave way to the flourishing Mughal rule. The Muslim rulers established strong trading ties with the rest of the country as well as abroad and under their reign internal trade and commerce as well as maritime trade flourished in the state. It was a brainchild of the Mughal emperors who permitted the East India Company to establish trade links with India, a consequence of which was the nation’s subsequent colonization.

The ruling Mughal emperor granted his permission to the East India Company to conduct business at their own discretion provided they paid a yearly sum of Rs. 3000 to the Mughal government. It is an unfortunate tragedy, that as soon as the Mughals started gaining prominence in Bengal, the state was taken over the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch, Francha nd British traders.

¤ Modern History
Portuguese
The foreign traders who arrived in Bengal found its location conducive to trade and commerce and thus tried to establish control over the province. May 1578 was a landmark occasion in the history of Hugli, an erstwhile ganj. A team of foreigners led by Peodro Tavares sought Emperor Akbar’s permission to establish a Portuguese colony in Bengal. Akbar being a benevolent believer in all religions readily agreed and even conceded to their desire for practicing their own religion and building their own churches and cathedrals. As corollary to this, Hugli came up as a Portuguese colony in 1579 AD.

Dutch
The Dutch traders arrived in the Indian subcontinent and established their colony in the country’s premises. The first Dutch colony in India came up in the year 1608. The Dutch conquests began with their occupying Pulicat. This was followed by their rapid capture of Tuticorin, Negapatna, and Coromandel Coast. However, very soon the Dutch suffered a serious blow during the period spanning between 1795-1818 AD when the British took over all the established Dutch colonies. As a consolation prize, the territories bordering the Coromandel Coast were restored to Netherlands in 1818 AD.

French
The French like the other foreigners arrived in India to further their commercial interests and set up their industrial enterprises in the bustling lands of Bengal. In the year 1673, the French established their colony at Chandernagore or as the current name goes Chandannagar, having sought permission from Nawab Shaista Khan, the erstwhile Mughal governor of Bengal. Those were the French days of glory when all they touched turned to gold. In 1816, after the remarkable French victory against the renowned Napoleon Bonaparte, the five former colonies of Chandranagore, Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam and the loges at Machilipattnam, Kozhikode and Surat were restored to France.

In the year 1948, the French and Indian governments concurred to stage an election that would decide the political future of the French in India. On 2nd May 1950, Chandergore breathed the refreshing air of freedom as it was handed over to the Indian subcontinent. Five years hence, Chandernagore was consolidated with West Bengal on 2nd October 1955.

British
The East India Company arrived in India to set up a trading center in a country noted for its business potential. The efficacy of the East India Company’s rule in Bengal is questionable considering the number of deaths that occurred following the cataclysmic famine of 1770. The control of Bengal was passed on to the hands of British crown from that of the East India Company after the disaster following the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, a rather unfortunate affair that sprung up at a Sepoy Mangal Pande’s initiative in Bengal’s Barrackpore.

When Queen Victoria was conferred the title of “Empress of India”, in the year 1877, Kolkata, formerly known as Calcutta was declared to be the capital of the British Raj. The oppressive British Rule in India prompted Bengal’s young revolutionaries to launch the Swadeshi movement where many young lives were sacrificed at the altar of freedom. However it is this path breaking movement of these martyr’s that eventually won India its much-desired freedom in 1947.

Independence
The Bengali youths and revolutionaries were actively involved in India’s freedom movement. Guided by the able leadership of visionaries of the likes of Chittranjan Das, S. N. Bannerjee, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Khudiram Bose and Rashbehari Bose, the people of Bengal were stirred up in patriotic fervor and were unified in the cause of liberating their country from the tyrannical British Raj.

Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose played a vital role in challenging the British authority. He formed the Indian National Army and established a liaison with the axis powers lead by Adolph Hitler to free India. Muslim leaders like A. K. Fazlul Huq and Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy were noted for their active participation in liberating India. The Swadeshi movement commenced in Bengal and was a triumphant strategy to free India of the British Rule and boost the country’s fiscal profile. This movement found tremendous support and approval from the Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi.

The political unrest within Bengal was a threat to the British government and this prompted Lord Curzon to take the initiative and partition Bengal. His plans however were met with great resistance and thus were abandoned. However India’s independence in 1947 was achieved at the cost of Bangladesh being snatched from Bengal and the Indian subcontinent and handed over to the newly formed Pakistan. The second partition of Bengal occurred in the 20th century in the year 1947. Bengal was divided into West Bengal in India and a Muslim region of East Bengal under Pakistan and it was renamed as East Pakistan in 1958. However, Bangladesh, too earned its freedom after the battle of 1971.

Post Independence
The post independence days in Bengal were in no way a smooth sailing affair for the state. However, the City of Joy, Kolkata is invincible. The state soon rose like a phoenix from the embers and tried to restore the state’s economy and industry with grace. The charming city has warmth of its own that can be felt while strolling down the streets. Although there is still a lot left to achieve, the urban metropolis has made tremendous headway in the economic front.

West Bengal’s administration is spearheaded by the Marxist Leninist group, the Communist Party of India (Marxist) from as early as the 60’s and 70’s. The party played a pivotal role in shaping Bengal’s future with their able rule and tolerant practices. The second partition of Bengal occurred in the 20th century in the year 1947. Bengal was divided into West Bengal in India and a Muslim region of East Bengal under Pakistan and it was renamed as East Pakistan in 1958.

Uttaranchal History

Uttaranchal, now renamed Uttarakhand is a new state which was once the part of the state of Uttar Pradesh. In Sanskrit, the word Uttarakhand literally means 'North Country or Section'. This beautiful state finds mention in the ancient Hindu scriptures as the combined region of Kedarkhand and Manaskhand. During the ancient times the land of Uttarakhand was an abode of the great sages and the heavenly deities as well. The holy river Ganga, the daughter of heaven, came down to the earth in Uttarakhand. The land of Uttarakhand has numerous pilgrimage centers, each having its own great legend to tell.

¤ Rulers & Etymology
The state of Uttarakhand has been mentioned in the Vedas, Upanishads and religious texts like Ramayana and Mahabharata albeit with different names. For Valmiki it was Uttarkaushal and Uttarkuru for Ved Vyasa; scholars like Panini and Kautilya called the region Uattarapatti; and Parvatkaran and Giryavali for the ancient historians. All these names have one thing in common; almost every name is related to the Himalayan Mountains. The Pauravas, Kushanas, Kunindas, Guptas, Katyuris, Palas, the Chands, and Parmars or Panwars and the British have ruled Uttarakhand in connected successions.

Nainital one of the most beautiful cities of the state, depicts the history of Uttaranchal. According to ancient belief, When Goddess Parvati died, parts of her corpse fell on Earth. Nainital was the place where one her eyes fell and formed a large crater, which is now known as Naini Lake. There are many temples, monuments and places situated in Uttaranchal which reflect the rich history of uttaranchal.

¤ Ancient History
The Kols, an aboriginal Dravidian tribe were the first inhabitants of Uttarakhand. During the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryan Khas tribes started sharing the land of present day Uttarakhand with the Kols. During the Vedic times, many sages also lived in Uttarakhand. The great sage Vyasa inscribed the Great Hindu Epic Mahabharata in Uttarakhand. It is believed that Pandavas lived in this region for a few days. By 8th century, Adi Shankaracharya had made inroads here and reestablished some extremely sacred Hindu shrines like Badrinath and Kedarnath.

¤ Medieval History
The medieval period saw the consolidation of the two kingdoms of Uttarakhand: the Gharwal Kingdom in the west and the Kumaon Kingdom in the east. From the 13th-18th century, Kumaon prospered under the Chand Rajas who had their origins in the plains of India. During this period, learning and new forms of painting (the Pahari School of art) developed. In 15th century King Ajay Pal of Pala Dynasty unified the 52 principalities of Uttarakhand that one common history could be made out. The city of Srinagar (of Uttaranchal) remained the capital till an earthquake completely and irreversibly damaged it and thus cities like Dehradun, Nainital and Pauri were developed as alternatives.

Garhwal
The traditional name of Garhwal was Uttarakhand and some archeologists found evidence which shows that it was part of the Mauryan Empire. The history of Uttaranchal began in the 15th century, when Emperor Ajai Pal merged the 52 principalities into his unified kingdom. Srinagar was the capital of Garhwal during that time.

Kumaon
Evidence of Stone Age settlements has been found in Kumaon, particularly the rock shelter at Lakhu Udyar. The paintings here date back to the Mesolithic period. The early medieval history of Kumaon is the history of the Katyuri dynasty. The Katyuri kings ruled from the seventh to the 11th century, over large areas of Kumaon, Garhwal, and western Nepal. The town of Baijnath near Almora was the capital of this dynasty and a centre of the arts. Temple building flourished under the Katyuris and the main architectural innovation introduced by them was the replacement of bricks with hewn stone.

¤ Modern History - Post Independence
Tehri was merged into then Uttar Pradesh but various political parties like the Uttarakhand Kranti Dal demanded a separate state 1994 onwards. Finally in 1998 after a lot of controversies and agitations, Uttar Pradesh was bifurcated into Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Initially, the state was called by the name of Uttaranchal but in December 2006 it was finally settled as Uttarakhand.

Uttar Pradesh History

The history of Uttar Pradesh is very old and fascinating and it has an important place in the history of the Hindus and in the history of ancient India. In fact history significantly defines the lifestyle of the present Uttar Pradesh. This land has been rules by many in the course of history. From the rule of Rama to the rule of British, Uttar Pradesh has seen it all.

¤ Ancient History
The history of Uttar Pradesh starts with the advent of Aryans hordes from Central Asian region. Its tryst with the history started as early as 2000 B.C when Aryans started settling along the Doab of Ganges and Ghagra. This settlement, which was predominantly rural in nature, was named "Madhyadesh" i.e. 'Central Country'. Various Vedic era kingdoms ruled Uttar Pradesh in turn. The most notable one was Kosala that was ruled by King Dasaratha and his successor Ram. They later became the protagonist of epic called Ramayana. Another epic, Mahabharata, also talks about kings who ruled in and around modern Uttar Pradesh and were participant in the war of succession between Kaurvas and Pandavas.

The middle of 1st millennium B.C saw the advent of Lord Buddha and Buddhism. Sarnath near Varanasi has the pride of becoming the place where Lord Buddha gave his first sermon. In that period, Uttar Pradesh was ruled by Magadh dynasty. In due course it passed do Nanda dynasty and then to Mauryan who toppled Nanda. In the post-Christ era, Kannauj became the center of power. Various rulers ruled from this city but it was during the reign of Harshavardhana that the city raised to its pinnacle.

¤ Medieval History
The historical background of Uttar Pradesh has a lot to do with the advent of the Muslim rule. The period witnessed the subjugation of the Rajputs whose power was confined to the a few pockets of Rajasthan. Uttar Pradesh reached the peak of prosperity during the Mughal rule, and particularly during the rule of Emperor Akbar. It's during the Mughal rule itself that Uttar Pradesh saw the construction of some of its most magnificent monuments whose names have been engraved in golden letters in the history of Uttar Pradesh.

The advent of Muslim rule acted as the catalyst in the history of Uttar Pradesh. The era saw the downfall and humiliation of Rajput rule in Uttar Pradesh and their influence was largely confined to the pockets surrounding the Rajputana strongholds of Rajasthan. Uttar Pradesh came under the rule of almost all the emperors that ruled during the Sultanate era. The real high came during the reign of Mughal when Emperor Akbar chose the city of Agra and Fatehpur Sikri as his capital cities. The Mogul reign saw the construction of some of the most magnificent monuments in Uttar Pradesh. The era also witnessed irreversible trends towards the development and consolidation of administrative and land holding systems. The era also saw the development of unique art, crafts and culinary traditions of Uttar Pradesh.

¤ Modern History
The era saw the advent and conquest of British in Uttar Pradesh. The Mughal rule started weakening and was later confined to the Doab region. Other martial tribes ruled the rest of the areas viz. Oudh was ruled by the Shiite Nawabs, Rohilkhand by Afghans, Bundelkhand by the Marathas and Benaras by its own king, while Nepal controlled Kumaon and Gadhwal. The 'Divani' of Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Oudh later passed to British. It happened in the year 1764 when the British East India Company forces, in the historic Battle of Buxar, trounced the combined army of Nawab Suja-ud-Daula, Mir Kasim and Mogul Emperor Shah Alam. The state was also the epicenter of the Sepoy revolt of 1857. Some of the major protagonist of that mutiny namely Nana Saheb, Tantya Tope, Rani of Jhansi, Maharaja of Benaras and Begum Hazrat Mahal were the resident of Uttar Pradesh. A Sepoy named Mangal Pandey is said to have initiated this revolt in Uttar Pradesh when he opened fired on a British Sergeant in the Merrut Cantonment.

¤ Post independence
After independence, in January 12, 1950, it got its present name of Uttar Pradesh. When India became a republic on January 26, 1950, Uttar Pradesh became a state of the Republic of India. The borders of Uttar Pradesh was modified in 2000 AD after bifurcating Uttarkhand from UP to form Uttaranchal, a new state in the Republic of India.

Tripura History

The history of Tripura dates back to primeval era of the great Indian epics, such as, the Mahabharata, the Puranas; and pillar inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka. Tripura has a long story of its origin, its distinctive tribal culture and a captivating folklore. It was called Kirat Desh in the earliest times. According to the mythological legends, Tripura, who was the successor of King Druya and Bhabru, was the prodigy on whose name the state was named. Another fable affirms that the state was named after the Goddess Tripuri Sundari (whose temple is situated at Radhakrishnapur).

In the 14th Century the history of Tripura witnessed a change with the sifting of the capital from Kailashahar to Udaipur. It was around the same time that the Tripuri kings adopted the title of Manikya and the Manikya dynasty which had a Indo- Mongolian origin ruled Tripura for around 3000 years. This was probably the most glorious episode of the history of Tripura and the dominance of the Manikyas was also acknowledged by the Mughals who were the central rulers.

The 17th Century is a major watershed in the history of Tripura when the administration of the region passed on the hands of the Mughals with some restrained powers of the Manikyas. With the coming of the colonial era the Britishers extended their control over Tripura but granted some independence to the Manikya kings.

The Royal history of Tripura ended in the year 1947 when monarchy in the state was completely terminated. Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya was the last ruling Manikya king of Tripura and it was after his death that Tripura was acceded to the Union of India. In the year 1949 Tripura became an Union Territory of India and remained so until 1972 when it was made a constituent state of the Indian Nation.

¤ Tripura - Origin of Name
Every aspect of the history of Tripura is extremely intriguing and there are a number of controversies regarding Tripura- origin of name. There are a number of historians who debate the origin of the name of Tripura and they put forward a number of theories regarding Tripura- origin of name. A major problem in tracing Tripura- origin of name is the lack of authentic documents on the history of the region. Rajmala is probably the only written document on the region which sheds light on its history.

The Rajmala, which is the court chronicle of Tripura, points out that the region had an ancient king named Tripur. It is believed that Tripur was a tyrant king and many historians argue that it was after him that the region was named. However, this theory about Tripura- origin of name has been challenged by historians who argue that Tripur is an a- historical and imaginary character.

The etymological origin of the word Tripura explains its origin to a large extent. The compound word of Tripura when broken gives two separate words, 'Tui' (water) + 'Pra' (near). The geographical location of the region thoroughly justifies its name. It is also argued that Tripura is a distortion of the word Twi-bupra. which means confluence of waters and many of the Tripuri Villages are named after the confluence of different rives. Another very strong probability of Tripura- origin of name is the Temple of Tripureshwari. This Temple in Udaipur is a major pilgrimage spot in the region and is one of the Shakti peeths.

¤ Tripura Kings
The history of Tripura points out at its regal past and the Tripura Kings are an integral part of this royal past. An in depth study of the past of Tripura reveals the long dynamic history of the Tripura Kings. Long back in the 7th Century the Tripura Kings adopted the title of 'pha' and ruled the region from the then capital city of Kailashahar in North Tripura.

It was in the 14th Century that the most important dynasty of Tripura ascended the throne. The Tripura Kings of the Manikya dynasty ruled the region for more than 3000 years and shifted there capital to Udaipur and finally to Agartala. The prestige and power of Tripura reached its apex under the Tripura Kings of the Manikya dynasty.

¤ Tripura Manikya Dynasty
The very first historical evidences about Tripura appears in the Rajmala, the royal chronicle of the Tripura Manikya dynasty. The Tripura Manikya dynasty originated in the 1280 A.D when the King of Tripura Ratna Fa assumed the title of Manikya. Indo- Mongolian in origin, the Tripura Manikya dynasty ruled over the region for hundreds of years.

It was under the regime of the Tripura Manikya dynasty that the Kingdom of Tripura reached the apex of its hey days. Under their rule a number of military victory earned Tripura the suzerainty over Myanmar, Bengal and Assam. The prosperity of the Tripura Manikya dynasty was all round ans their fame and power was even acknowledged by the Mughals who were their contemporaries in North India.

It was only in the the 17th Century that the Mughals extended their imperialistic hands towards Tripura but even then the Tripura Manikya dynasty maintained some of their authorities. Even when the colonial British rule captured most parts of Eastern and Northern India, the administrative power of Tripura was left to the Tripura Manikya dynasty.

After India earned independence the Regent Maharani of the Tripura Manikya dynasty signed an agreement that approved the merger of Tripura with the Indian Union. The last ruling King of the Tripura Manikya dynasty was Bir Bikram Manikya who was succeeded by Maharaja kirit Bikram Kishore Manikya. The current head of the Tripura Manikya dynasty is Maharaja Kirit Pradyot Deb Barman Manikya Bahadur who is the son of late Maharaja kirit Bikram Kishore Manikya

¤ Tripura Tiger Force
The Tripura Tiger Force is one the major militant group that operates in the city of Tripura. The group drifted apart from the Tripura National Volunteers under the leadership of Ranjit Debbarma. The faction of the group was called the All Tripura Tribal Force that was formed on 11th July, 1990. The group later renamed itself as the All Tripura Tiger Force in the year 1992.

The small faction of extremists worked in the remote areas of the districts of Tripura. Gathering force by inculcating the tribal youth of the region, the group grew to become an influential militant association that has been correlated with other groups like the Tripura Tribal Youth Force, Tripura Lion Force, Tripura Liberation Organization and the Tripura National Army.

Although strictly administered, the All Tripura Tiger Force had faced disappointment when a group of 1,600 cadres laid down their arms in the year 1994. The remaining members of the extremist group continued to function and were declared as banned in the year 1997 according to the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act of1967. The organization works to retrieve the rightful land of the tribal people by eviction of the Bengali immigrants who settled in the state of Tripura. The insurgencies continue to achieve the objective of the group.

The organizational head of the group is Ranjit Debbarma who leads as the President of the All Tripura Tiger Force. The political faction of the group, Tripura Peoples' Democratic Front, is believed to run a parallel government in the fringes of the state. The organizational headquarters is at Tarabon in Bangladesh where the President has taken refuge.

¤ Post Independence
On 1 July 1963, Tripura was declared as the Union Territory of India. It developed into a full-fledged state on 21 Jan’ 1972. After the Indo-Pak of 1971, Tripura is facing the problem of armed conflicts. The Tripura National Volunteers, the National Liberation Front of Tripura and the All Tripura Tiger Force emerged as groups during this time to chase off the Bengalis, who migrated in masses from Bangladesh.

Tamil Nadu History

Tamil Nadu has a very rich history dating back to thousands of years. It is the the cradle of Dravidian culture. It is believed that the Dravidians of Tamil country were once a part of the early Indus Valley settlers and moved south after the advent of the Aryans around 1500 BC. However, the recorded history of human civilization in Tamil Nadu goes back only to the 4th century BC. The Sangam literature has several references to the social, economic and cultural life of people in this part. The close proximity to the Sea put the Tamil Country on the maritime map of the world even before the dawn of Christian era. Over a period of time, the Tamils developed trade links with ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome.

¤ Ancient History (1st to 9th centuries)
The ancient history of Tamil Nadu, between the periods of 1st - 9th century AD, had been dominated by the Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas rulers. All these dynasties engaged in continual skirmishes; but their steady patronage of arts served the expansion of Dravidian culture. It is also considered the golden period of Tamil literature famously known as " the Sangam Age", which lasted till the end of 3rd century AD. The Sangam literature provides a deep insight into the cultural, social and economic conditions of that period.

Tamil Nadu was ruled by the early Cholas between 1st and 4th centuries CE. Karikalan was the first and the most famous king, who built the Kallanai (kall - stone, anai - bund), a dam across the Cauvery River, which is considered to be an engineering wonder of that time. The Cholas ruled the present Thanjavur and Tiruchirapalli districts and were excellent in military expertise. At the peak of their glory, the Chola kings expanded their influence as far as Cylon (SriLanka) in the south and hundreds of kilometers across the northern region. Cholas comprises the major part of ancient history of Tamil Nadu. Almost all the Chola Kings build magnificent temples. Brahadeswarer's Temple or more popularly called as the Big temple in Tanjore (Thanjavur)is a classical example of the magnificent architecture of the Chola kingdom.

During the second half of the 4th century AD, Pallavas emerged into prominence and dominated the region for next 400 years. They ruled the most of the present day northeastern Tamil Nadu, with Kanchipuram emerging as the most important center of their political and cultural activities. In the 6th century AD they defeated the Cholas and their authority reached as far as Sri Lanka. But, the internal feud led a gradual decline of the Pallava dynasty and they lost their supremacy by the end of the 9th century AD, when Aditya Chola defeated them.

¤ Medieval History (9th to 14th centuries)
Under Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas again rose as a notable power in 9th century in South India. The Chola empire extended to the central Indian states like, Orissa and parts of West Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered the eastern Chalukya kingdom by defeating the Cheras, and also occupied parts of Ceylon by defeating the Pandyas. Rajendra Chola went beyond, occupying the islands of andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya and the islands of Pegu with his fleet of ships. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to mark his victory he built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The Cholas started loosing their power around the 13th century.

As Cholas declined, the Pandyas once again emerged as a power, in the early 14th century. But this was short lived and soon they were subdued by Muslim Khilji invaders from the north in 1316. The city of Madurai was plundered and completely destroyed. The invasion destroyed the Chola and Pandya dynasties and led to the establishment of Bahmani Kingdom in the northern Deccan.

Due to the 14th century invasion, the Hindus retaliated in reaction and rallied to build a strong new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara empire. This empire included all the strongholds of Cholas and other local Hindu rulers to check the Muslims. Governors called Nayaks were employed to run different territories of the empire. Vijayanagar Empire was the most prosperous dynasty in the south, with Hampi as the Capital. But by 1564 the empire came to an end at the hands of Deccan sultans in the battle of Talikota. The empire, dismantled into many parts and was given to the Nayaks to rule. Tamil Country under the Telugu Nayaks was peaceful and prosperous. The Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur were most prominent of them all, who reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country.

¤ Modern History (17th century)
The Dutch accomplished a settlement in Pulicat around 1609. The British, under the British East India Company, established a settlement further south, in present day Chennai, in the year 1639. The British took advantage of the petty quarrels among the provincial rulers (divide and rule) to expand their area of power. Under the British colonial rule, most of the south India was integrated into the region called Madras Presidency. But the British supremacy in the south was not without challenges. The French and Dutch also entered into the fray for supremacy in the region. The British had to fight a number of battles with them, notably the French at Wandiwash in 1760, and the Dutch at Tharangambadi, which led to complete surrender of the Dutch, and reduced the French dominations in India to Pondicherry. The British also fought four wars with the Kingdom of Mysore under Hyder Ali and later his son Tipu Sultan, which led to their eventual domination of India's south. They consolidated southern India into the Madras Presidency.

The nationalist movement in Tamil Nadu was a movement of historical depth. Its starting point is the late eighteenth century. Early manifestations of anti-colonial feeling in Tamil Nadu were the rebellions led by the Poligars of Tirunelveli and Shivagana, and the sepoy revolt at Vellore in 1806. Some important Chieftains or Poligars of Tamil Nadu, who fought the British East India Company as it was expanding, were Veerapandya Kattabomman, Maruthus and Pulithevan.

¤ Tamil Nadu After Independence
After India gained independence in 1947, Madras Presidency became Madras State, comprising of present day Tamil Nadu, coastal andhra Pradesh, northern Kerala, and the southwest coast of Karnataka.

The state was later divided on the basis of linguistic lines. In 1953 the northern districts formed Andhra Pradesh. Under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, Madras State lost its western coastal districts. The Bellary and South Kanara districts were given to Mysore state, and Kerala was formed from the Malabar district, the former princely states of Travancore and Cochin. Finally, in 1968, when the Central Government imposed Hindi as the national language, the state of Madras was renamed Tamil Nadu, to reduce the resistance against this decision of the government.

Today, Tamil Nadu is one of the most prominent states of India, famous for its tourist attractions and drawing innumerable visitor's to the state.

Sikkim History

The earliest important event in the history of Sikkim is the passage of the Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche through the land in the 8th century. He introduced Buddhism to Sikkim, and foretold the era of monarchy in the state that would arrive centuries later. In the fourteenth century a prince. In 1642, the fifth generation descendant of Khye Bumsa, Phuntsog Namgyal, was the first king of Sikkim,marking the beginning of the monarchy. In 1670 he was succeeded by his son, Tensung Namgyal.

In 1700, Sikkim was invaded by the Bhutanese with the help of the half-sister of the king, who had been denied the throne. The Bhutanese were driven away by the Tibetans, who restored the throne to the king ten years later. Between 1717 and 1733, the kingdom faced many raids by the Nepalese in the west and Bhutanese in the east, culminating with the destruction of the capital by the Nepalese. In 1791, China sent troops to support Sikkim. Following Nepal`s defeat, Sikkim became a suzerainty of Qing Dynasty.

Little is known of Sikkim’s history prior to the 17th century. The state’s name is derived from the Limbu words su him, meaning “new house.” The Lepcha were early inhabitants of the region, apparently assimilating the Naong, Chang, Mon, and other tribes. The Bhutia began entering the area from Tibet in the 14th century. When the kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642, Phuntsog Namgyal, the first chogyal (temporal and spiritual king), came from the Bhutia community. The Namgyal dynasty ruled Sikkim until 1975.

¤ Kingdom of Sikkim
Kingdom of Sikkim started in the 13th century on a formal basis. Guru Tashi, the exile prince of the Minyang dynasty of Tibet, is generally accorded the status of being the founder of the kingdom in Sikkim. He assimilated the Lepchas and the resident tribes into a kingdom and his descendants formally initiated the rule of the Chogyal kingdom at Sikkim.

The name of Guru Rinpoche is integrally connected to the history of Sikkim. The Buddhist preceptor traveled through Sikkim as early as in the ninth century and prophesied a kingdom to come, that would unite the discordant tribes into one sovereign head. His prophecy was fulfilled when Guru Tashi, the Tibetan prince entered Sikkim, on the basis of a divine revelation. He assimilated the Lepchas and the other tribes and founded the bedrock on which the future of the kingdom of Sikkim was to grow.

The Chogyals of Sikkim
The Chogyals were the kings of Sikkim. The first Chogyal of Sikkim was Phuntsog Namgyal, the fifth in the line of Guru Tashi. He was appointed as the king of Sikkim in the Yuksom, the historic conference of three lamas who came to Norbugang in West Sikkim from three corners of the state to grace the occasion. He was succeeded in the throne by Tensung Namgyal, the second monarch in the kingdom of Sikkim. His reign was peaceful, but chaos prevailed soon after his death, following the succession of his son by his second wife, Chadok Namgyal to the throne. Thereafter, kingship became a bone of succession in Sikkim. The kingdom in Sikkim was plagued by the intrusion of many foreign powers, including the Bhutanese, the Nepalese and the Tibetans. Things reached a catastrophe with the exile of Tenzing Namgyal to Lhasa. It was in 1793, that his son Tshudpud Namgyal came back to Sikkim to reclaim the throne.

¤ British arrival
The British arrival in Sikkim was related to the long animosity that the Sikkimese kingdom had with the neighboring state of Nepal. Under Nepalese attack, Tenzing Namgyal, the ruler of Sikkim in the middle of the eighteenth century, had to flee from his land and take up refuge at Tibet. Although his son, Tshudpud Namgyal, did manage to reclaim certain areas of Sikkim, the victory was far from conclusive.

Early Reasons behind the Arrival of the British in Sikkim
The British arrival in Sikkim was punctuated by the need that Tshudpud Namgyal felt, to find a friend in his struggle against the Nepalese kingdom. The British arrival at Sikkim was therefore perpetuated with a covert assent of the reigning Chogyal, who was keen to join hands with the British forces to fight the common enemy in Nepal. The result of the British arrival in Sikkim was an attack of Sikkim by the Nepalese troops, that necessitated direct intervention of the British army. It led to the Gurkha War of 1814, resulting in two separate treaties. The first of them was the Sugauli treaty, signed between Sikkim and Nepal, and the second was the Titalia treaty, signed between Sikkim and British India.

The Second Phase of the British Arrival in Sikkim
The arrival of British in Sikkim then entered a new phase. The British East India Company obtained the city of Darjiling from Sikkim in 1835. Incidents between the British and Sikkim led to the annexation in 1849 of the submontane regions and the subsequent military defeat of Sikkim, culminating in the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861. The treaty established Sikkim as a princely state under British paramountcy (though leaving the issue of sovereignty undefined), and the British were given rights of free trade and of road making through Sikkim to Tibet. In 1890 an agreement was concluded between the British and the Tibetans that defined the border between Sikkim and Tibet. Tibet also acknowledged the special relationship of British India with the kingdom of Sikkim. A British political officer was subsequently appointed to assist the Chogyal in the administration of Sikkim’s domestic and foreign affairs, in effect becoming the virtual ruler of the state.

¤ Puppet state
The puppet state of Sikkim was a result of the British insurgency in the state following the arrest of two doctors who entered into the kingdom unannounced and ventured to roam in the mountains without any prior permission of the Chogyal. A punishment raid of the British army followed, resulting in the annexation of Darjeeling and Morang. Thereafter, the Chogyals were forced to maintain something of a puppet state in Sikkim, in a small region surrounding Gangtok.

The Ten Clauses Agreement
The Chogyals of what was by then the puppet state of Sikkim continued to maintain a steady rule in the small region around its new capital at Gangtok. However, it was not enough to curb the Tibetan attacks that the region faced in 1886. The Chogyal, Thutob Namgyal and his wife came to hold negotiations with the British in Calcutta, but were held prisoners. The British themselves took to the sword in 1888, the Tibetans were routed and the king was restored as something of a puppet king in the state of Sikkim. The Ten Clauses Agreement returned the sovereign to the puppet state Sikkim, but the king was allowed to have only judicial rights and nothing else of the monarchy that they erstwhile had.

Sidkeong Tulku
Sidkeong Tulku was the Crown Prince of Sikkim, when the Prince of Wales visited Calcutta in 1905. The princes befriended each other, a relationship that continued when the Prince went on to study at the Oxford University. It coincided with the time, when his old friend the Prince of Wales went on to become the King of England - assuming the appellation of George V. Soon after completing his studies abroad, Sidkeong came back to the puppet state of Sikkim and promptly introduced many reforms to change the entire social structure of the state for the better. His reign was short, but witnessed many changes. After his death in 1914, the puppet state at Sikkim was restored independence in 1918.

¤ Independent monarchy
The second phase of the independent monarchy in Sikkim started after the British granted full sovereign freedom to the state in 1918. However, problems started to brew soon after the attainment of the Indian independence in 1947. The new government of India under Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru conducted a popular poll in Sikkim to gather public opinion for Sikkim's joining India. The results went against it and the independent monarchy in Sikkim was allowed to persist. However, India maintained the external defense, communication and diplomacy of the independent monarchy at Sikkim.

The Indo-China War
The war between India and China had a direct repercussion on the rule of the independent monarchy in Sikkim. The border was a volatile combat zone. The results that went against India resulted in the closing of the Nathula Pass by the Chinese government, which would open as late as in 2006. The assumption of power by Smt. Indira Gandhi and the reign of the last hereditary Chogyal, Palden Thondup Namgyal led to new problems. The situation was complicated and took international dimensions after Hope Cook, the wife of the king wrote on it to attract international attention on the problems that plagued the independent monarchy of Sikkim. Amidst this controversy, the Sikkim National Congress Party came into existence in 1970, with a greater representation of Nepalese, and raising voices for a termination of Sikkim independent monarchy.

The End of Independent Monarchy in Sikkim
As anti-monarchical voices gathered force, the Kazi, or the Prime Minister of Sikkim, appealed to the Indian parliament for a change of Sikkim's independent status in 1975 and expressed the wish of the inhabitants to be a part of the Indian statehood. Steps followed each other, and was formalized in 1975. The United Nations was quick to recognize this change, except China. The office of the Independent monarchy in Sikkim was abolished in 1982.

Rajasthan History

The state of Rajasthan has a rich historical legacy and has been the kingdom of many rulers. The origin & history of Rajasthan goes back to 1200 A.D. The history of Rajasthan is about 5000 years old and the mythological origin of this gigantic land is related to the famous myth of Ram, the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. The history of the Indian state Rajasthan can be classified into three parts owing to the different epochs- Ancient, Medieval and Modern.

¤ Ancient History (Till 1200 A.D)
Rajasthan is the north-western region of India, and has remain independent from the great empires. Buddhism failed to make substantial inroad here; the Mauryan empire (321-184 BC), whose most renowned emperor, Ashoka, Converted to Buddhism in 261 BC, had minimal impact in Rajasthan, However, there are Buddhist caves and stupas (Buddhist Shrines) at Jhalawar, in Southern Rajasthan. Ancient Hindu scriptural epics make reference to sites in present-day Rajasthan. The Holy Pilgrimage site of Pushkar is mentioned in both the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

¤ Emergence of the Rajputs
The fall of the Gupta Empire, which held dominance in northern India for nearly 300 years until the early 5th Century, was followed by a period of instability as various local chieftains sought to gain supremacy. Power rose and fell in northern India. Stability was only restored with the emergence of the Gurjara Partiharas, the earliest of the Rajput (from 'Rajputra', or Sons of Princes) dynasties which were later to hold the balance of power throughout Rajasthan.

Whatever their actual origins, the Rajputs have evolved a complex mythological genealogy. This ancestry can be divided into two main branches: the Suryavansa, or Race of the Sun (Solar Race), which claims direct descent from Rama; and the Induvansa, or Race of the Moon (Lunar race), which claims descent from Krishna, Later a third branch was added, the Agnikula, or 'Fire Born'. These people claim they were manifested from the flames of a sacrificial fire on Mt.Abu From these three Principal races emerged the 36 Rajput clans.

The Rajput clans gave rise to dynasties such as the Chauhans, Sisodias, Kachhwahas and Rathores. Chauhans of the Agnikula Race emerged in the 12th century and were renowned for their valour. Their territories included the Sapadalksha kingdom, which encompassed a vast area including present- day Jaipur, Ranthambore, part of Mewar, the western portion of Bundi district, Ajmer Kishangarh and even, at one time, Delhi. Branches of the Chauhans also ruled territories know as Ananta (in present-day Shekhawati) and Saptasatabhumi.

The Sisodias of the Suryavansa Race, Originally from Gujarat, migrated to Rajasthan in the mid-7th Century and reigned over Mewar, which encompassed Udaipur and Chittorgarh.

The Kachhwahas, originally from Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh, travelled west in the 12th century. They built the massive fort at Amber, and later shifted the capital to Jaipur. Like the Sisodias, they belonged to the Suryavansa Race. Also belonging to the Suryavansa Race, the Rathore (earlier known as Rastrakutas) traveled from Kanauj, in Uttar Pradesh. Initially they settled in Pali, south of present-day Jodhpur, but later moved to Mandore in 1381 and ruled over Marwar (Jodhpur). Later they started building the stunning Meherangarh (fort) at Jodhpur.

The Bhattis, who belong to the Induvansa Race, driven from their homeland in the Punjab by the Turks, installed themselves at Jaisalmer in 1156. They remained more of less entrenched in their desert Kingdom untill they were integrated into the state of Rajasthan following Independence.

¤ Medieval History (1201 A.D - 1707 A.D)
In this medieval era around 1200 AD, Muslim rulers took over a part of Rajasthan. The major regions of Rajasthan such as Nagaur, Ajmer and Ranthanbhor came under the Mughal hegemony headed by the Mughal ruler- Akbar. The most famous Rajput warriors who represented the vigor and valiance of the Rajput dynasty and whose tales of chivalry are still imprinted in the sands of Rajasthan were Rana Uday Singh, his son Rana Pratap, Bhappa Rawal, Rana Kumbha and Prithviraj Chauhan and others. Around 13th century, Mewar emerged as one of the most powerful state in Rajasthan and remained so for quite sometime. Mewar was the prime battlefield and the place has witnessed some of the most gruesome battles.

¤ Modern History (1707 A.D - 1947 A.D)
Till the time Akbar ruled, Rajasthan and the Mughal Empire flourished in all its glory. After 1707, the Mughal power started to weaken. As the Mughal Empire began to break up, the political degeneration of Rajasthan started to take place. Rajasthan was then plundered by the Marathas and Pindaris. This carried on till the start of 19th century after which the British took over and continued till 1947. During the British rule, Rajasthan was a conglomeration of princely states and each state was designated as Rajputana and was ruled by a Mahajaraja.

From the beginning of the 20th century the Maharaja's of Rajasthan indulged in opulent luxury primarily to satisfy the English rulers. They had a penchant for visiting foreign countries, playing polo and even took part in horse racing, all of which exhausted the royal treasury.

¤ Post Independence
Rajasthan was broken up into several small provinces by the British for easy administration. The first step that was taken was the slow merging of all the provinces into one state. This long process began in the year 1948 and ended in 1956. It was then officially declared as one state called Rajasthan. Now, Rajasthan has 32 districts that have been officially declared a part of Rajasthan by the Government and now it is the second largest state of India.

Punjab History

Punjab, a region in Northern India, has a long history and rich cultural heritage. The history of Punjab dates back to 7000 B.C. The earliest human civilization known as the Indus valley civilization is believed to have been established in this region. The earliest signs of human activity were also started in this period. The Indus valley civilization grew from small village and settlements to highly refined urban life.

The region has been invaded and ruled by many different empires and races, including the Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Egyptians, Afghans, and Mongols. Around the time of the 15th Century, Guru Nanak Dev founded the Sikh religion, which quickly came to prominence in the region, and shortly afterwards, Maharaja Ranjit Singh reformed the Punjab into a secular and powerful state. The 19th Century saw the beginning of British rule, which led to the emergence of several heroic Punjabi freedom fighters. In 1947, at the end of British rule, the Punjab was split between Pakistan and India.

¤ Land of Ancient Civilizations and Epics
Punjab is the cradle of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 4000 years old. Archaeological excavations, throughout the state, have revealed evidences of the magnificent cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, that lived and died along the banks of the mighty Indus and its tributaries. The Vedic and Epic period of the Punjab was socially and culturally very prolific as during this glorious period, the people accelerated in the fields of philosophy and culture. It is believed that parts of the Ramayana too, were written around the Shri Ram Tirath Ashram, near Amritsar; and it was in these forests that Lav and Kush grew up. Kaikyee belonged to this region. The authors of Vishnu Purana and the Shiv Purano belonged to the central Punjab. Other great historical discoveries have been unearthed at Ropar, Kiratpur, Dholbaha, Rohira and Ghuram. These relics throw light on the culture and changing architectural styles of Punjab, since the Harappan age. At Sanghol, in Fatehgarh Sahib district near Ludhiana, sites associated with great Mauryan Dynasty, have yielded remarkable relics that record the presence of Buddhism in the region.

¤ Aryan Migrations
Among other reasons like the change in the weather patterns, urbanization without any rural agricultural production base one factor is reported to be the series of raids or small scale migrations by the Aryans from the North-West (1500-100 BC). The next thousand year history of Punjab (or Arya-Varta, the land of Aryas, as Aryas called it) is dominated by the Aryans and their interactions with the natives of the Indus basin. Here is where the oldest books of human history called the Rig-Vedas are supposed to have been written. The Aryan tongue Sanskrit became a symbol of the Aryan domination of the area.

¤ Aryan Migration and Persian Rule(516 BC-321 AD)
Among other reasons, one of the reasons of the decline of Indus Valley Civilization could be a series of raids or small scale migration from North-West between 1500 B.C to 100 B.C . The next thousand years of the history of Punjab is dominated by the Aryans. They used to call it Arya-Varta or the land of Arya. Here is where the oldest books of human history called the Rig-Vedas are supposed to have been written. The Aryans spoke Sanskrit, which became common language of the people.

The location of Punjab was on the outskirts of the Great Persian empires. It was often attacked by the Persian rulers. The Persian King Darius the great was able to occupy some parts of Punjab. But he was Persian King Gustasp who completed the occupation of Punjab in 516 B.C. Soon, Punjab became the wealthiest of all the Satrapies i.e provinces of the Persian kingdom.

¤ Alexander's Invasion (321 AD)
The legendary king Great Alexander of Greece had an ambition of Conquering the World. Around 321 B.C after crushing the might of Persians , he entered India through its North-West frontiers . The place, which is modern day Punjab, was then under the rule of Persians and was the richest place on earth . Alexander invited all the local rulers of Punjab to submit to his authority . Alexander as with his other occupied areas established two cities in the area of Punjab, where he settled people from his multi-national armies which included a majority of Greeks and Macedonians. These cities along with the rule of the Indo-Greek thrived long after Alexander's departure.

Alexander's Eastern empire (from Syria to Punjab) was inherited by Selecus Nicator, the founder of Seleucid dynasty. However the Greek empire in the east was disrupted by the ascendency of the Bacterians. The Bacterian King Demetrius I added Punjab to his Kingdom in the second century BC. The best known of the Indo-Greek kings was Menander who established his independent kingdom centered at Taxila in 170 BC. He later moved his capital to Sagala (The modern Sialkot). Menander soon captured territories east of his kingdom and grew to rival the power of Bacterians. Menander died in a vain attempt to conquer Bacteria in 130 BC. Menander's successors maintained the their rule on Punjab till 55 BC when the whole area was disrupted by the events happening in greater Euro-Asia.

In the middle of the second century BC, Yui Chi tribe of modern China began to move westward which caused in turn to Sakas or Scythians to move. Northern Sakas successfully wrestled the power of the areas from the Indo-Greeks. Another Central Asiatic people to make Punjab their home were the white Huns who made continuous campaigns towars this part of the world. Finally establishing their rule in the later 3rd century AD.

¤ Muslim Invasions(713 AD -- 1300 AD)
After the birth of Islam in Arabia in 6th century AD, Arabs rose to power and replaced the Persians as the major power in the area. In 711-13 AD Arabs advanced to the land of five rivers, occupying Multan. Further north the area that survived the Arab attacks was divided into small kingdoms.

Meanwhile in Ghazni after the death of Subuktgin, the Turk, his son Mahmud assumed power in 997 AD. He was to expand his father's kingdom far to the west and east of Ghazni through his military conquest. He was to attack Punjab 17 times during his reign. The Ghaznavids were uprooted by the Ghauris who extended their rule as far as Dehli. Shahabuddin Ghauri annexed Lahore to his kingdom in 1186. After Ghauri's death his governor Qutbudin Aibak became an independent ruler of Punjab and founded the Mamluk sultenate. Khiljis' replaced the Mamluks in 1290. The rule of Khiljis was briefly disrupted by the two successful raids by the Mongols who marched their way to dehli twice during Alauddin khilji's rule. tughluqs succeeded Khiljis in 1320 AD. Tughluq rule was replaced by the Sayyids in 1414 AD. Lodhis gained control of Dehli in 1479 AD. After that Mugals came and captured relatively the whole of India and remained in power for about 250 years.

¤ The Rise of Sikh Power (1700 AD-1849 AD)
In 1469 A.D , Guru Nanak was born at Talwandi, now in Pakistan . He was to show the world a new light , the path of brotherhood amoung Hindus and Muslims . Soon he became famous accross Punjab and thousands of people started following his teachings . His followers were called the "SIKHS". Guru Angad Sahab Ji succeeded Guru Nanak in 1539 .He was followed by Guru Amardas Sahab Ji, Guru Ramdas Sahab Ji, Guru Ajan Dev Sahab Ji, Guru Har Gobind Sahab Ji, Guru Har Rai Sahab Ji, Guru Har Krihan Sahab Ji, Guru Teg Bahadur Sahab Ji and finally by Guru Gobind Singh Ji.

The 10th Guru was Guru Gobind Singh Ji. He was a true warrior . On 13th April 1699 , he modified his Sikhs to a community , different from normal Hindus . From now on , Sikhs were required to keep long hair on head and beard . They were also required to wear a Pagdi i.e. a Turban. He faught several battles with Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Around 1757 A.D , both Punjab and Sind , had fallen to Ahmad Shah Abdali's rule . Ahmad Shah died in June 1773. After his death power of Afghans declined in Punjab.

Next was the territory of Ranjit singh. During the rein of Maharaja Ranjit Singh , the Sikhs had even ruled on Afganistan . The Sikh religion flourished and the territorial boundaries increased . Ranjit Singh constructed many Gurdwaras . He constructed the famous Sachkhand Sahib at Nanded in Maharashtra . He also covered the famous Har Mandir Sahib (Golden Temple) with Gold. After his death in 1839, the Sikh governors started fighting with each other for supremacy. Slowly the Sikh kingdom started declining and the British took over it.

¤ The British and the Post Independence Era
The British ruled Punjab for 200 years like the rest of India . Many of the Freedom Fighters of the Great Indian Freedom Struggle were from Punjab. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev , Lala Lajpat Rai, Udham Singh were some of the brave sons of this soil who laid down their life for the country. In addition thousands of unsung heros sacrificed themselves in the "Jalia Wala Bagh" incident.

At last on 15 th August 1947, India became independent and the State was divided among India and Pakistan. Punjab was again divided into the states of present day Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh for administrative reasons in 1966 . Chandigarh on the border of Punjab and Haryana, remains the capital of the two states, yet is administered as a Union Territory from Delhi.

Orissa History

The History of Orissa spans over 3,500 years and it is a typical from the history of the northern plains in many ways. Orissa was home to the Kalinga and Utkal tribes who played significant roles for the narration of this great history. This fact is evident from the writings of Vedic chronicles. The history of Orissa can be divided into ancient, medieval and modern history.

¤ Ancient History
Orissa was known as Kalinga during the ancient period. Kalinga had been the cradle of civilization of different dynasties of rulers. During the ancient times, the Kalinga region was untouched by the influence of Brahmanical culture. Most of the local inhabitants of the bygone era were the tribal communities who followed completely different cultural traditions. However, by the 15th century, the region was affected by the Brahmanical traditions and the prevailing social customs slowly began to change.

The Kalinga war played a dominant role in changing the social, political and economic condition of the region. The battle between Emperor Ashoka and the King of Kalinga had an impact on the historical development of Orissa. Emperor Ashoka was highly moved by the pitiable condition of the innocent people who lost their near and dear ones in the ruthless fight between two rulers. After the Kalinga War, Emperor Ashoka adopted Buddhism and preached peace and harmony. Under the able guidance of Emperor Ashoka, literature, language, music and dance flourished during the ancient times.

¤ Medieval History
In the medieval period, Orissa came under the influence of Tantrism which is the tribal form of worshipping the Supreme Being. The Yogini Cult of Orissa was one way of expressing the Tantric culture of the olden days.

¤ The Reign of Ashoka
The son of Vindusara - Ashoka The Great, who invaded Kalinga in 261 B.C. and succeeded in occupying Kalinga. The Kalinga War was one of the most dreadful and ponderous nature taking the lives of as many as 1,00,000 people. 1,50,000 were taken as prisoner of war, while about the same number died as a consequences of the war. Ashoka could not the bear the horrendous slaughter caused by the war and therefore took up the path of non-violence and become the follower of Buddhism. Ashoka tried to placate the unconquered Atavika people and desired to conquer their heart by love. That was the principle of Dharmavijaya and was followed by Asoka after the Kalinga War. Kalinga became one of the administrative provisions in the empire of Magadha with headquarters of a Kumara (Viceroy) located at Tosali.

Asoka believed in generous administration and a well organized government. Buddhism spared over Kalinga and was accepted as a state religion. Ashoka also took a great deal of interest in developing the art of stone masonry, edicts were engraved on the Dhauli and Jaugada rocks to teach the religious principles to the people. Asoka died in 232 B.C. and the Maurya empire lasted up to 185 B.C.

¤ Kalinga War
The Kalinga War involved a fierce battle over the region of Kalinga between Emperor Ashoka and the King of Kalinga. The battle of Kalinga was decisive in changing the mindset of Emperor Ashoka. After the war, Ashoka renounced his quest for acquiring new territories and adopted the path of peace and harmony.

The kingdom of Kalinga declared itself independent during the rule of Chandragupta. After several unsuccessful attempts, Vindusara, son of Chandragupta relinquished the hope of getting back the kingdom of Kalinga. However, the indomitable spirit of Ashoka was firm in his determination to bring back Kalinga under his reigns and so he fought the bloodiest battle in the history of the Indian Sub-continent.

¤ Mahameghavahana Kharavela
In the second half of the 1st century BC, the third ruler of this dynasty was Kahravela. The ruler was the descendant of the Mahameghavana dynasty that established its rule in the early half of the century. The Hatigumpha inscription in Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar purveys detailed accounts about the life and flourishing of Kharavela kingdom. On the premature death of Kharavela's father, he took up the administration and become the most successful ruler of his times.

The Hatigumpha inscription records the work of Kharavela up to his thirteenth ruling year after that records are not available. He was probably succeeded by his son Kudepasiri. It is known from some recently discovered inscriptions of Guntupalli and Velpuru in Andhra Pradesh that the Mahameghavahana dynasty continued to rule over Kalinga and Mahishaka up to the 1st century AD.

¤ The Satavahanas and the Murundas
The Satavahana king Goutamiputra Satakarni ruled Kalinga early in the second century. According to some scholars, Mahrarja Rajadhiraja Dharmadamadhara's gold coin was found from Sisupalgarh excavation who is considered as a Jaina king belonging to Murunda family which ruled over parts of Bihar and Orissa. The Bhadrak stone inscription of Maharaja Ganabhadra datable to the third century AD also indicates the rule of the Murundas in Orissa. Thereafter the Murundas of Kalinga were conquered by the rising Naga dynasties of Kausambi, Ahichhatra, Padmavati and Vindhyatavi.

¤ The Durjayas
About the middle of the sixth century A.D. a chief named Ranadurjaya established his rule in South Kalinga with Pishtapura as his capital. The Mudgalas of Tosali were conquered by the Durjaya king Prithvimaharaja. The kingdom was subsequently destroyed by Sasanka who was ruling in some parts of Orissa .

¤ The Royal Gangas
The Eastern Gangas who started their rule in Kalinga about the end of the 5th century AD continued as a small power till the time of Vajrahasta V who came to the throne in 1038 A.D.

¤ Mukundadeva
Mukundadeva came to the throne in 1559 by betrayal and slaughter. He belonged to the Chalukya family. In 1560 Sultan Ghiyasuddin Jallal Shah of Bengal invaded Orissa and marched up to Jajpur. Mukundadeva defeated him and drove him out of Orissa. During that time Akbar was planning to conquer Bengal and made alliance with Mukundadeva for that purpose. In 1567 when Akbar was busy in the invasion of Chitor, Sultan Karrani invaded Orissa. The Mughal Governor of Bihar, Munim Khan became nonchalant and Mukundadeva confronted the invasion of Bengal single-handed. He was defeated by the Sultan Karrani and took refuge in the fort of Kotsima, where Sultan Karrani tormented him. Mukundadeva made a treaty with Suleiman Karranim and fought against Ramachandra Bhanja where he lost his life at the hands of Ramachandra Bhanja. Later on Ramachandra was also defeated and killed by Bayazid and Orissa was conquered by the Afghans of Bengal in 1568 AD.

¤ The Afghan Rulers
Orissa came under the rule of the Afghans with the victory of Karrani in Orissa. But fortunately the new rulers could not establish their authority in the effective manner. Suleiman Karrani died in 1572. Daud Karrani, his younger brother took up the throne as the ruler of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. During this time Mughal Emperor Akbar whose aim was to extend his empire, had his eyes over the state for the long time as he got the opportunity he fought a battle and captured Orissa. There started the rule of Mughals Empire in Orissa.

¤ The Glorious Phase of Mughal Rule
Mughals could never had a very strong footing on the land of Orissa due to its terrain. Akbar was contented that the territory of Orissa is added into its province. Thus, in most parts of Orissa, local rulers enjoyed their autonomous authority and semi-independent status. Orissa constituted into a separate province in 1607 and Cuttack was declared its capital during the rule of Akbar's son Jahangir and his successors. Orissa enjoyed this status till the end of the rule of the Great Mughals.

Orissa was ruled by Mughals for about two centuries, but there was no endeavor on their part to convert the people to Islam. When the Mughal Empire began to decay, the Nazim of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, Aliverdi Khan, became independent. The Marathas played a major role in declining of the Mughal Empire. There started a conflict between Aliverdi and the Marathas, which finally ended in the Maratha acquisition of Orissa.

¤ Marathas Brought Great Development To The Region
The Maratha administration of Orissa functionally began from the year 1751. Maratha brought lot of developments into the region. They encouraged pilgrimage to Orissa from other parts of India, due to the increasing esteem and fame of the Jagannath Temple. Marathas aslo had a great role in the boosting up of Oriya literature. But this glorious phase of Maratha rule could only lasted for not more then half a century. There rises the British power in the region.

¤ British Rule
In 1633, the British setup a trade centre at Hariharpur, one of the first of their settlements in India. Their subsequent establishment at Baleshwar on river Burhabalanga and at Pipili on river Subarnarekha grew into booming trade centres. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Buxar in 1764 the craving of the British Empire reached its heights, and they wanted to acquire as much of Indian territories as possible. The treaty of Deogarh, signed on 17 December 1803, ended the Maratha rule and Orissa was under the regime of British Rule.

¤ Freedom Struggle In Orissa
The Indian National Congress was born in 1885, the Orissa was all ready for taking up a initiative in the advancing of the Congress beliefs and programs. As the ultimate effort of the National Congress to secure the complete independence, the Quit India Movement was started in August 1942, Orissa had an active role in this revolution. Although Orissa province came into existence on 1st April 1936 but it was declared as a separate state of Indian Union only after India’s independence i.e. in 1949.

Nagaland History

There is no written document that tells us about the history of Nagaland. However, the medieval documents of the neighboring place of Ahom in Assam mention the economic and social lives of the Naga ethnic groups. Some of the major historical facts about Nagaland are given below:

Little is known about the early history of what is now Nagaland, including the origin of several large sandstone pillars at Dimapur. British rule was established over the area by the 1890s, and headhunting, then a traditional practice, was outlawed. The Naga territory remained split between Assam and the North East Frontier Agency after Indian independence in 1947, despite a vocal movement advocating the political union of all the Naga tribes; one faction called for secession from India.

¤ Early History
The early history of Nagaland is the story of the customs and economic activities of the Naga tribes. The people were originally referred to as Naka in Burmese languages, which means 'people with pierced ears'. The Naga tribes had socio-economic and political links with tribes in Assam and Burma (Myanmar); even today a large population of Naga inhabits Assam. Following an invasion in 1816, the area, along with Assam, came under direct rule of Burma. This period was noted for oppressive rule and turmoil in Assam and Nagaland. When the British East India Company took control of Assam in 1826, the Britain steadily expanded its domain over modern Nagaland. By 1892, all of modern Nagaland except the Tuensang area in the northeast was governed by the British. It was politically amalgamated into Assam. Missionaries played an important part in converting Nagaland's Naga tribes in Christianity.

There is no scholarly consensus regarding the early origins of the Nagas and very little is known of the Mongoloid groups whose southwesterly migration brought them to the sub Himalayan region of north-eastern India and north-western Myanmar. These tribes speak Tibeto-Burman dialects and it is probable that their original homeland was in the region between the Huang Ho and Yangtze (Ch'ang) rivers in northwestern China and that they came in successive waves of migration spreading over centuries.

In the year 1816, Assam was invaded by Myanmar, following which Myanmar started controlling the place from 1819 to 1826. In the year 1826, the British started ruling over this region. By the year 1892, the entire Naga region excepting the Tuensang area was under the control of the British. The British rule brought an end to the massive bloodshed and inter-regional conflicts.

¤ Post India's Independence
Nagaland remained a part of the state of Assam. The extremist people and the Naga groups took part in an intense revolt for freedom from the nation of India. However, finally, the Indian army succeeded in making this revolt a failure in the year 1955.

The district of Assam called Naga Hills and the Tuensang area were made to represent a single unit under the Indian administration. At the meeting of Naga People's Convention in the year 1960, it was finally decided that Nagaland will be considered a full-fledged state of India. In the year 1963, Nagaland was finally declared a separate state, which constitutes an important part of Nagaland history.

Various rebellious actions continued to be taken by the extremists and the Naga ethnic people. The restoration of peace in Nagaland is a major part of Nagaland history. It pertains to the initiative taken for resolving the political disturbances in Nagaland.

At one point, the situation was out of control and presidential rule had to be declared in this state. In the year 1975, many anti-government leaders agreed to accept the administration of the Indian government but there were still some people who kept on agitating against the government.

Meghalaya History

The history of Meghalaya deals with the various incidents and illustrations that are witness to the rise of Meghalaya as an autonomous state. To begin with the history of Meghalaya it can be said that the Meghalaya has been the homeland of a number of tribes, namely the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia. Till the 19th century, each of the three tribes in Meghalaya, viz. Garo, Khasi and Jaintia, had their independent rule in the different territories of Meghalaya. But the arrival of the Britishers in the political scenario of India changed the plight of these tribal communities in India.

Khasi Kingdom
Originally, the Khasi kingdom consisted of 25 independent Khasi chiefdoms in the mid-sixteenth century. Around 1815, the Khasi states came under British rule. There was very limited cultural relations between the Khasi states prior to British rule. Frequent wars between the states and villages, trading and raiding in the Brahmaputra and Sylhet valleys were the chief characteristics of the Khasi kingdom.

The Khasi kingdom in Meghalaya became an integral part of the British empire in 1765, when the Sylhet markets were considered a part of the economy of British. Around 1790, there were raids in the Khasi regions and finally the British fortified the foothills and stopped trading of the Khasi goods in the markets of Sylhet.

The mutual enmity between the Khasi kingdom at Meghalaya and the British ended when a road was put up in 1837 to connect Kolkata with the Brahmaputra Valley across the state of Nongkhaw. The antagonism officially ended with all the Khasi states and the British signing some treaties in 1862. These treaties allowed the Khasis autonomy and freedom from paying taxes to the British. The Khasi kingdom of Meghalaya exhibited a great deal of cultural change after Shillong was declared the capital of Assam. These changes include decreasing popularity of traditional culture, increase in wealth, the acceptance of intermarriage and showing progress in education.

An autonomous tribal region was established in 1947, which was answerable to the governor of Assam, who functioned like an agent of Indian president. Nevertheless, the state system of the native Khasis remained undisturbed, that is, the different functionaries of their state system were not altered. Currently, the Khasis form a predominant tribe in Meghalaya, which is their own state.

Garo Kingdom
The Garo Kingdom of Meghalaya originated from Tibet, from where they went to the present Cooch Behar and then to Dhubri. Then they moved on to Jogighopa, present Kamakhya Hills or Ka'magre, along the Brahmaputra valley and finally spread in Goalpara or the Habraghat Pargana. The Garos prospered in the Habraghat Pargana neighborhood. The first Garo kingdom was created here and its first ruling prince was Abrasen. He had his capital and palace at Sambol A'ding, a lonely hill close to the Dakaitdol Village near the Goalpara town.

In the medieval period, the kingdom of the Garos in the hills were at hostility with the Zamindars of the estates, located on the plains near the foot the hills. Some of the important estates are Bijini in the Eastern Duars, Kalimalupara, Karaibari, Habraghat and Mechpara in Rongpur and Sherput and Susang in Mymensing in Bengal. The Garos still belonged to a few small Nokmaships, while the estates were fewer in number and larger in area.

In the later part of the 18th century, the British East India Company started establishing contact with the Garos, after acquiring the Diwani of Bengal from the Mughal emperor. The British won over all the semi-independent estates that bordered the Garo Hills. But the internal administration of the estates was not disturbed. They were given the responsibility of keeping the power of the Garos in check, as in the time of the Mughals. Hence, the enmity between the Garos and the zaminders grew stronger and the British had to finally intervene. Finally, this chaos ended when the Garo Hills were annexed in 1873. Captain The first Deputy Commissioner of Garo Hills district was Williamson. In 1979, it was divided into two districts, that is, West Garo Hills and East Garo Hills.

Jaintia Kingdom
The district of Jaintia Hills is an integral part of the Jaintia kingdom, which is otherwise called Sutnga Kingdom. In the society of Jaintia kingdom in Meghalaya, the villages that were located in a particular region formed a single political unit. The villages of this political unit were termed 'elakas'. The chief of each elaka was termed Doloi. He was elected from the senior population and could be expelled for his inefficiency or immorality.

A collection of many elakas consituted a Jaintia Syiemship or a kingship. The chief of the kingdom of Jaintias was the Raja. The Dolois represented their respective people in the Raja's Durbar. This old governmental setup excepting the Raja still exists. The respective durbars checked the power of the Doloi and the Raja. The Durbar, in turn, checked the government power. Initially, Jaintia Hills was called 'Ka Ri Khadar Doloi' or ' the land of the twelve tribal chiefs'. Initially, in Jaintia Hills there were twelve Dolois, who ruled twelve separate elakas. The British abolished the Syiem office in the Jaintia kingdom of Meghalaya though they kept the concepts of Doloi and village headman or Waheh Chnong unchanged. The British brought the entire Jaintia Hills and a few other Khasi Hills villages under one administrative system. These regions were directly ruled by the British.

In 1972, after Meghalaya was declared a separate state, the Jaintia Hills and the Khasi Hills were put under the same administrative unit. In 1952, the concept of district council was introduced in these hilly regions. Consequently, both Jaintia Hills and Khasi were given separate district councils, though they remained parts of the same state.

British Rule
The current state of Meghalaya primarily consisted of the Khasi kingdom, the Garo Kingdom and the Jaintia kingdom before the advent of the British East India Company. The nature of Meghalaya British rule in each of these crucial parts of Meghalaya is described below:

The British rule in Meghalaya made the Khasi kingdom an integral part of their empire in 1765 by considering the Sylhet markets as an integral part of the Company's economy. The raids in the Khasi localities around 1790 finally led the British to fortify the foothills and did not allow further trading of Khasi goods at the Sylhet markets.

The antagonism between the Khasis and the British came to an end with the construction of a road in 1837 in Nongkhaw. The hostility finally ended when the Khasi states and the British signed a few treaties in 1862. These treaties made the Khasis autonomous and free from paying taxes to the Company.

The British rule of Meghalaya won over all the semi-independent estates bordering the Garo Hills. But the British did not alter the internal administration of the estates. The zaminders were supposed to check the power of the Garos, as during the rule of the Mughals. Hence, the hostility between the Garos and the zaminders became even stronger. Finally, the British annexed the Garo Hills in the year 1873. The first Garo Hills Deputy Commissioner was Williamson. In the year 1979, Garo Hills was divided into the districts of West Garo Hills and East Garo Hills. The British rule at Meghalaya abolished the Syiem office in the Jaintia kingdom but they did not modify or eradicate the posts of Doloi and village headman or Waheh Chnong. They put the whole Jaintia Hills and a few other Khasi Hills villages under the same administrative system. The British directly governed these regions.

Post Independence
On 2nd April 1970, Meghalaya became an autonomous state and on 21st January 1972, it was declared a full-fledged state. Meghalaya post independence has its capital at Shillong. It stands at a height of 1496 meters above sea level. It remained the capital of Assam from 1874 to 1972. Shillong owes its name from its creator named Shyllong. The Jaintias, the Khasis and the Garos form the majority of the population of Meghalaya.

All the actions of the state government follow the laws formed by the parliament after independence in Meghalaya. The Union has the right to give directions to the state government as and when necessary. The basic structure of post -independent Meghalaya is given below:

Council of Ministers
In Post independent Meghalaya, the council of ministers execute the functions of the state government. The chief minister is the head of the council. The governor appoints the chief minister and the rest of the ministers. The council of ministers is answerable to the state legislative assembly. It is made up of ministers, comprising of the cabinet members and the state ministers. The cabinet ministers finalize the government policies. When required, the rest of the ministers have to attend cabinet meetings.

The governor carries out all the executive functions. He is the constitutional head of the state government. All the actions of the governor are based on the decision of the ministers. In case of a few exceptions, he can exercise his authority.

Advocate General is the topmost state government legal adviser. His advise is often taken in case of interpretation of laws, other rules and the constitution. He is present in the supreme court in case of important cases as a representative of the government. He can actively participate in the Legislative Assembly proceedings in Meghalaya after independence.