Goa History

In the ancient period, Goa was called Gomanchala, Gomant, Goapuri, Gowapur and Gopakapattana. Goan's were originally the descendents from the native Dravidians who where gradually overrun by the Aryan advance from the north around 1500 BC. Aryans who settled in Western India named their state Konkan. Goa, a part of Konkan, became an important port of the ancient and medieval traders like the Phoenicians, the Persians, the Arabs, the Sumarians, the Greeks and the Romans. Until the11th century, there was a succession of empires rising and falling in Goa. Earlier, it was part of the territories of Ashoka, the great Buddhist emperor of the Mauryan Empire who reigned from 273-236 BC. In the 2nd century BC Goa was under the Satavahanas. The Western Kshatrapus ruled next from 150 AD. Then came the Bhojas who made their capital Chandrapur (now Chandor). From AD 540 the Chalukyas of Badami ruled for about 200 years. The Rashtrakutas exercised their influence from 753 AD to 973 AD. Then came the Kadambas who ruled from 1008 AD to 1300 AD. Under their rule Goa became India's maritime power and they built Gopakapattana (now Goa Velha) a few kilometres south west of old Goa which remained the capital until their fall. By1312 the political authority of Goa passed to the Muslims, who under Alaud-din Khilji's general, Malik Kafur defeated the Kadambas. The rise of the Vijayanagar empire had its effect on Goa. Vidyaranya Madhavthe ruler of the Vijayanagar defeated the Muslims in 1370 AD. The Bahamani Sultans dominated the political authority over Goa in about 1470, and in 1498 the Adil Shahi dynasty at Bijapur. It was in 1510, that Alfonso de Albequerque captured Goa from Yusuf Ali Adil Shah.

Goa was coveted and ruled by a great number of Indian kingdoms and dynasties from the 4th century onwards. The first kingdom to rule Goa and Konkan were Bhojas, who were the feudatories of Ashoka in 4th and 5th centuries AD. The city of Chandrapur (present Chandor) was founded by Prince Chandraditya, son of Chalukya King Pulakesin from 566 to 597 A.D. after this, Goa was ruled consecutively by Silahara Dynasty, Kadamba Danasty, and finally Hoysalas from 1022 to 1342 A.D.

From the 14th century onwards, Goa became a great trading center on the west coast, especially in the vast trade of horses imported from the Middle East. This was the time for bigger empires to move in and Vijayanagar Empire conquered it in 1344. But their empire was not going to last too long and in 1347, Bahmani Sultans defeated Vijayanagara forces in 1347 and controlled Goa. Afterwards, it was a time of great prosperity and peace for Goa, especially during the rules of Yusuf Adil Shah and Ismail Adil Shah. They created beautiful houses, fortified Goa, and encouraged local craftsmen. Their liberal and progressive rule was not going to last too long and situation changed in 1510 A.D.

Goa for all purposes was not on the Portuguese Radar even after a long time of their presence in India. When the Portuguese nobleman Alfonso de Albuquerque and his cousin Francisco de Albuquerque were sent with a powerful fleet in 1503 on the orders of King Dom Manuel I, the purpose was to defend the cargoes of spices, mostly pepper, against Arab Muslim raiders. The center of spice trade was Calicut at that time and Portuguese had built forts in Cochin and Cannanore.

It was in 1506-08 that an opportunistic pirate, Timoja, persuaded Albuquerque to attack Goa and acquire a better land base. This made Goa, Portugal's first real territorial acquisition in Asia. After a brief period of recapturing by the Muslims, Goa Albuquerque finally captured Goa in 1510.

The inquisition of Goa in 1540 reversed the previous liberal policy of Albuquerque and imposed strict censorship of literature and new laws to forbade non-Christians from professions. Forced conversions took place continuously, censorship was established on literature, the temples were destroyed, and non-Christian priests, holy men, and teachers were evicted. This led to continuous fleeing of Hindus from Goa to other parts of India.

It is not that the relationship with Portugal brought only destruction for the Goans. Portuguese also built great churches like the church of St. Cajetan and Bom Jesus basilica in Old Goa, which is a pilgrimage site for the Christians from around the world. But it is also true that pre-1961, Goa was a highly impoverished region very backward and primitive. It is after the liberation that Goa of today has emerged and it has surprised even the locals many of whom had left their homeland before its liberation. Portugal and India are today friends and Goa continues to be a fascinating blend of Latin and Orien.

Christianity was absorbed by the inhabitants. The inter mixture of the locals who settled with the Portuguese soldiers evolved a new culture that was unique. The Portuguese made the city of Panaji the capital of Goa in 1843. It was a Portuguese colony till 1961 after which it became a part of the Indian Union. Goa attained full statehood on 30th May1987 when Daman and Diu retained separate identity as a Union Territory.

Chhattisgarh History

Chhattisgarh is a young and a new state but the reference of this state can be traced in ancient texts, and inscriptions. In ancient times Chhattisgarh was known as Dakshin Kosala. It is said that Lord Rama has spent some time here when he was on his 14 years exile.

A British Chronicler, J.B. Beglar provides and interesting story explaining the origins of the name Chhattisgarh. It becomes very relevant in the context of contemporary caste consciousness and the caste configuration of the region. According to Beglar "the real name is Chhattisghar and not Chhattisgarh. There is a tradition saying that ages ago about the time of Jarasandha, thirty six families of dalits (leather workers) emigrated southwards from Jarasandha's kingdom and established themselves in country, which after them is called Chhattisgarh". Another common explanation regarding the origins of the name Chhattisgarh is that it denotes the number of forts in the region, which are supposed to be thirty six in number. However, experts do not agree with this explanation, as thirty-six forts cannot be identified in the region. An explanation popular with the experts and historians in that Chhattisgarh is the corrupted form of 'Chedisgarh' or the political seat of the Chedis.

The unbroken history of Chhattisgarh or of South Kosala can be traced back to fourth century AD. In the 10th century the region was ruled by a powerful Rajput family who called themselves as Haihaya dynasty. This dynasty continued ruling Chhattisgarh for six centuries and about the 14th century it split into parts. The Chalukya Dynasty established its rule in Bastar in the middle ages. The Marathas attacked Chhattisgarh in 1741 and destroyed the Haihaya power. in 1745 AD after conquering the region, they deposed Raghunathsinghji, the last surviving member of the Ratanpur house. in 1758, the Maraths finally annexed Chhattisgarh, it came directly under Maratha rule and Bimbaji Bhonsle, was appointed the rule. After death of Bimbaji Bhonsle, the Marathas adopted the Suba system. The Maratha rule was a period of unrest and misrule. There was large-scale loot and plunder by the Maratha army. The Maratha officials were openly surrendering the interests of the region to the British. As a result of this, the region became extremely poor and the people began resenting the Maratha rule. Only the Gonds continued to resist and challenge the advances of the Marathas and this led to several conflicts and much animosity between the Gonds and the Marathas (Captain Blunt, 1975). The Pindaris also attacked and plundered the region in the beginning of the Nineteenth Century.

The tribals of Bastar strongly stood firmly against the British, which resulted in the Halba rebellion, which continued for about five years from 1774-1779. Vir Narain Singh’s name is written in golden words in the history of Chhattisgarh, as he was the first martyr from this region in the struggle of independence.

In the medieval period, the region came to be known as Gondwana and became the part of the kingdom of the Kalchuris who ruled the region till the end of the 18th century AD. The Muslim chroniclers of the 14th century AD have described well about the dynasties that ruled over the region. The region also came under the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire around the 16th century and later to the Marathas in 1745. By the year 1758, the whole region of Chhattisgarh was annexed by the Marathas who plundered its natural resources mercilessly. Also the word 'Chhattisgarh' was popularized during the Maratha period and was first used in an official document in 1795.

In the year 1818, Chhattisgarh came under the British rule. After Nagpur was included under the rule of the British government in 1854, Chhattisgarh was created into a deputy commissionership. Its headquarters were located at Raipur. The British government brought about certain reforms in the administrative and revenue systems. Chhattisgarh also took part in the 1857 Revolution when Vir Narayan Singh, a landlord of Sonakhan, grew up to challenge the injustices of British rule in the region. After a prolonged battle with the British forces, Vir Narain Singh was finally arrested and later hanged on the 10th December 1857. In the year 1904 British reorganized the region and transferred Sambalpur to Orissa and added the estates of Surguja to Chhattisgarh.

The demand for a separate Chhattisgarh state was raised by the Raipur Congress unit at the meeting of the Raipur district Congress in 1924, for the first time. There emerged a general consensus on the view that the region of Chhattisgarh was culturally and historically distinct from the rest of Madhya Pradesh and should get recognition of its own but somehow it didn't materialized. After the independence of India, the demand for a separate state again resurfaced and in 1955 it was raised in the Nagpur assembly of the then state of Madhya Bharat. And finally the dream of a separate state of Chhattisgarh became reality when it was declared the 26th state of India on 1st November 2000.

Bihar History

The history of Bihar is one of the most varied in India. Bihar was called Magadha in the ancient times. Its capital Patna was known as Pataliputra at that time. Bihar the ancient land of Buddha, has witnessed a golden period of the Indian history. The state finds a mention in the Vedas, Puranas, and epics. The main activities of Buddha and 24th Jain Tirthankar took place in this state. Magadha was the center of power, learning, and culture in India for 1000 years. India's first empire, the Maurya empire as well as one of the world's greatest pacifist religion, Buddhism arose from the region that now makes modern Bihar. Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule.

Ancient History
The classical Gupta dynasty of Bihar, was known to have been a period of great culture and learning inside India. The Gupta period is known today as the Golden Age of India. Post the Gupta period, Bihar played a very small role in Indian affairs, until the emergence of the Suri dynasty during the Islamic period in the 1540s. After the fall of the Suri dynasty in 1556, Bihar again became a marginal player in India and was the staging post for the Bengal Presidency from the 1750s and up to the war of 1857-58. In 1935, Bihar was carved out as a separate provience in the British Indian Empire. Since 1947, Bihar has been a state in the Indian Union.

The history of Bihar is very ancient. In fact, it extends to the very dawn of human civilization. Earliest myths and legends of Hinduism the Sanatana (Eternal) Dharma - are associated withBihar. Sita, the consort of Lord Rama, and daughter of King Janak of Videha was a princess of Bihar. The author of the Hindu epic, The Ramayana, Maharishi Valmiki, lived in Ancient Bihar.

Medieval Period
The Mughals established a prosperous atmosphere in Bihar. With the downfall of the Mughals, the Nawabs from Bengal exercised their rule. The East India Company established its sway over Bihar after the Battle of Buxar in 1764. The different British attitudes and practices towards the people led to migration to lands like Africa, South East Asia etc. Under the British, Bihar was first a part of Bengal Presidency. In 1911 the two states of Orissa and Bihar were separated from Bengal. In 1936,they became separate provinces. A part of Bihar comprising mainly forest tracks of Chhotanagpur plateau and Santhal paragana, the homeland of the tribals became a separate state Jharkhand on November 15th, 2000.

Modern Period
After the Battle of Buxar in 1765, the British East India Company obtained the Diwani Rights (rights to administer and collect revenue, or tax administration / collection) for Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. From this point onwards, Bihar remained a part the Bengal Presidency of the British Raj until 1912, when Bihar was carved out as a separate Province. In 1935, certain portions of Bihar were reorganised into the separate province of Orissa. Again, in 2000, 18 administrative districts of Bihar were separated to form the state of Jharkhand. Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur and his army, as well as countless other persons from Bihar, contributed to the Indian rebellion of 1857, also called the Sepoy Mutiny by some historians.

Bihar`s contribution in the freedom struggle has been immense with outstanding leaders like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Bihar Bibhuti, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Jayaprakash Narayan, Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Basawon Singh, Yogendra Shukla, Sheel Bhadra Yajee and many others who worked for India`s freedom relentlessly and helped in the upliftment of the underprivileged masses. Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki were also active in revolutionary movement in Bihar.

Assam History

Assam's history goes back to the ancient times. The base of this history can be found in Vedic literature, Tantric literature, Assamese folklore and Buddhist literature. The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east, west and the north; the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman cultures. Politically, it has been invaded, but has never served as a vassal or a colony to an external power till the advent of the Burmese in 1821 and subsequently the British in 1826. The history of Assam is known from many sources. The Ahom kingdom of medieval Assam maintained chronicles, called Buranjis, written in the Ahom and the Assamese languages. History of ancient Assam comes from rock inscriptions and the many copper plates and royal grants the Kamarupa kings issued during their reign. Protohistory is reconstructed from folklore, epics like Mahabharata, and two medieval texts compiled in the Assam region—the Kalika Purana and the Yogini Tantra.

However, first reference of Assam is found in the epics and the religious legends. The Aryans belonging to the priestly (Brahmin) and warrior classes found their way into Assam in very early times. Numerous places referred in the epics, like Mahabharata etc. are now identified with sites in this state.

Assam has been an inseparable part of India since centuries, though details of its history & origin have lost in times. As interpreted by some scholars, the term ‘Assam’ is taken from the Sanskrit term ‘Asoma’ which means matchless or unequaled. According to the current studies, the term has been originated from the original name of the Ahoms, the people who ruled the land for about 600 years before its invasion by the British. In the times of yore, different races like Austric, Mongolian, Dravidian and Aryan have ruled the state.

Known as 'Kamarupa' or 'Pragjyotish' in the period of the Epics, Assam is inhabited by human civilisation since about 2000 BC. The people of Assam consists of the migrants from Burma and China. They settled in Assam after the mongoloid migration. Mongoloids came from Punjab through Bihar and North Bengal. Henceforth, Assam presents a blend of Mongol-Aryan culture. It is believed that, the early history of Assam belonged to be of the Varman dynasty. The reign of this dynasty extended from 400 AD to 13th century. Huien Tsang is said to have visited Assam during the rule of Kumar Bhaskar Varman in the 7th century BC. The Ahoms are said to have ventured into Assam in about 1228 AD. By 15th century the kingdoms of Ahom and Koch were established. This period witnessed a change in all the sections of life in Assam.

Ahom Kingdom weakened in the later part of the 18th century, due to internal conflict. The Burmese ran over the political authority in Assam, thus invoking British intervention to subdue the Burmese. After a conflict between the Burmese and the English, peace was regained by the treaty of Yandaboo in 1826. The British then set out to organise the administration, transport and communication. Besides the various changes, the British constructed the railways; introduced of tea plantation, discovered of coal and oil etc.. All this proved fruitful to the British during the World War II. In the post Independence period of India, Assam witnessed several separation of territories. In 1948, NEFA (Arunachal Pradesh) was separated. In 1963 Nagaland was separated. In 1972 Meghalaya and in 1987 Mizoram.

The inscriptions on stone and copper show that there was a succession of Hindu dynasties. The Ahoms ventured into Assam in about 1228 AD. By 15th century the Ruins of Kachari Kingdomkingdoms of Ahom were established. In 1228 AD the Ahoms (a Shan tribe from which the name Assam is probably derived) crossed the Patkoi Mountains from Burman and by the sixteenth century absorbed the Chutiya and Kachari kingdoms and subdued the neighboring hill tribes. During the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Ahoms revolted a succession of Mughal invasions. The kingdom of the Ahom reached its height under Rudra Xingha.

During the latter half of the sixteenth century, the Assamese saint and teacher, Shankara Deva, motivated the Vaishnavites, who wanted to reform the practices of Tantric Hinduism and to limit the privileges of the Brahmins attached to the Ahom Court. Shankara Deva`s Vaishnavism appealed to the tribal base on which the Ahom had erected their state because of their denial of caste privilege. From 1979, under the leadership of religious leaders the disaffected population of the kingdom took part in a series of rebellion against the Ahom rule. The leader of this rebellion was Ragha Maran. It is said that his two wives also had participated in the battle.

After victory his son, Ramakata became the king. At the request of king Gaurinath Xingha the Governor General of British India, dispatched a mission to the Ahom capital to restore peace. As a result peace was restored but civil strife persisted. Meanwhile the Burmese in 1817, took advantage of the rebellion within the Ahom nobility. They came at the invitation of the Governor, conspired against the king and killed many in Assam over a period of five years. Fearing danger of extinction in their territory, the British drove the Burmese from the Brahmaputra Valley, and seized the Ahom kingdom in 1826. In 1838, all of northeast India became part of the Bengal Presidency of British India. The British dismantled the Ahom ruling structure and employed educated Bengali Hindus and made Bengali the official language.

The government offered incentives to European entrepreneurs to start plantations as the natives of Assam were rich and hence, unwilling to do plantation labor. The British recruited poor tribals from southern Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. In 1874, Assam was separated from Bengal, and was comprised into a separate province with its capital in Shillong. In 1905, on the initiative of the British Viceroy of India (Lord Curzon) the province was amalgamated with east Bengal following the partition of Bengal into the west and the east. In 1912, the partition was nullified, and Assam was made a separate province once more. In the twentieth century, the government of India, offered vast tracts of land to Muslim farmers (from East Bengal) for settlement and cultivation.

Arunachal Pradesh History

Relating to the earlier history of Arunachal Pradesh, there are practically no records except some oral literature and the number of historical ruins found mainly in the foot hills dating approximately from the early Christian Era. About the origin of Arunachal Pradesh, the earliest citations are found in the prehistoric epics of Mahabharata, Ramayana and other spiritual legends. The historical characters, such as Princess Rukmini, King Bhismaka and Lord Parashuram, were reported to be from the same region. Talking about the substantial evidence, the first ancestors of the tribal groups traveled from Tibet in ancient times, and were soon joined by the Thai-Burmese. Barring the northwestern parts, hardly anything is known about the history of Arunachal Pradesh.

Arunachal Pradesh is inhabited by people of tribal origin. These groups had distinct culture. In the16th century the Ahom Kings influenced the region. The population were of Tibeto-Burmese linguistic origin. The tribe consisted of the Daflas, Bangnis, the Monpas and they were influenced by Buddhist ideals. The Miri along with the Daflas and Tagin lived in the hills. The Apatanis were believed to be more advanced. They were agriculturists. Besides this the Abor who called themselves as Adi lived in the valley of Arunachal Pradesh. Besides them the Membas, Ramos and Boris formed minor groups. The Mishmis exists as Idus, Taraons, and Kamans. They excelled in handicrafts. Today tourism forms an important source of revenue for the state economy.

In 1826, the British exercised their control in Assam after the treaty of Yandaboo concluded on 24th February 1826. Before 1962, Arunachal was popularly called North Eastern Frontier Agency and was constitutionally a part of Assam. It was administered by the Ministry of External Affairs until 1965 and subsequently by the Ministry of Home Affairs through the Governor of Assam. In 1972, it was constituted as a Union Territory and renamed Arunachal Pradesh. On 20th February in 1987, it became the 24th state of the Indian Union.

The Ahom chronicles of the 16th century throw some light on the recorded history. Besides, Monpa and Sherdukpen-the tribal, had kept past evidences of the existence of local chiefdoms. As stated by the records, the northwestern parts were swayed by the Monpa kingdom of Monyul that prospered between 500 B.C. and 600 A.D. Later, the northern part of region came partially under the control of Tibet and Bhutan. The Ahom and the Assamese got the control over remaining parts of the state, particularly the ones adjoining Myanmar. They ruled until India was annexed by the British in 1858.

In 1913-14, during the Simla Conference, McMahon Line of 890 km was created as the border linking British India and Tibet. However, the line was not accepted by the Chinese; it was shown as official boundary only in 1937. In 1938, Tawang was shown as a part of Tibet on the map published by the Survey of India. From Dirang Dzong in the west to Walong in the east, the British set their feet in the region in 1944. However, Tibet changed its position on the McMahon Line in 1947 subsequent to the note claiming Tibetan districts to be lying to the south of McMahon Line.

When India got independent in 1947, the situation developed further because People’s Republic of China was stern to take over Tibet. Seeing the situation, India announced the McMahon Line to be its boundary in November 1950, and the Tibetans were forced to leave Tawang in 1951. Later in 1954, the NEFA (North East Frontier Agency) was established. The matter was quiet for the next ten years, but again started during the Sino-Indian War of 1962. During the war, the PRC detained most of the NEFA (earlier term for Arunachal Pradesh), and after asserting its victory, it willingly left the McMahon Line. During the war in 1962 China was victorious and voluntarily withdrew back to the McMahon Line and returned Indian prisoners of war in 1963. The war has resulted in the termination of barter trade with Tibet.

Until 1972, Arunachal Pradesh was administered as the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA). In 1972, it was declared as a Union Territory, and was renamed Arunachal Pradesh. On 20 February 1987, Arunachal Pradesh was constituted as the 24th state of the Indian Union. After so many years, in 2007, the state government has shown green signal to resume barter trade with Tibet. Today, Arunachal Pradesh is a prosperous Indian state where tourism is the major source of revenue generation.

Andhra Pradesh History

The recorded history of Andhra Pradesh can be traced to the Andhra Kingdom of the (Iron Age) Mahajanapada period, succeeded by the Satavahana empire. The Andhra Ikshvakus ruled the eastern Andhra country along the Krishna river during the later half of the 2nd century. The Pallavas extended their rule from southern Andhra to Tamil regions and established their capital at Kanchipuram around the 4th century CE. They rose in power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the southern Telugu and northern parts of Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.

In 1347, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani kingdom, was established in south India by Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu as a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century.

In 1765 Lord Robert Clive, the then existing Chief and Council at Vizagapatam obtained from the Mughal emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars. In 1792 the British got the complete supremacy, when they defeated Maharaja Vijaya Rama Gajapathi Raju of Vizianagaram.

India became independent from the United Kingdom in 1947. The Muslim Nizam of Hyderabad wanted to retain his independence from India, he was forced accede his kingdom to India in 1948 as the Hyderabad State. Andhra State was the first state in India that has been formed on a purely linguistic basis by carving it out from Madras Province in 1953. Andhra State was later merged with Telugu speaking area of Hyderabad (Telangana) to create Andhra Pradesh state in 1956.

It is believed that the people of Andhra Pradesh basically belong to the Aryan race. They are said to have migrated to the south of the Vindhyas, where they mixed up with the non-Aryans. The history of Andhra Pradesh dates back to the time of Ashoka the Great Mauriyan king ( 3rd century B.C.). This state became an important Buddhist center during his reign. The evidences of the Buddhist influence can be seen in Amaravathi and Nagarjunakonda. These are regarded as one of the greatest archaeological sites in India.

* The Early Andhra Pradesh

The earliest dynasty that ruled Andhra Pradesh was the Satavahana dynasty ( 2nd century BC 2nd century A.D), also known as the andhras. They were ruling much of central and southern India at that time. They established their capital at Amravati on the banks of river Krishna. They were very much indulged in international trade with both eastern Asia and Europe. The Satavahana kings were followers of Buddhism and they worked towards the welfare of this religion.

Later, Andhra Pradesh was ruled by the Pallavas from Tamil Nadu, the Chalukyas from Karnataka, and the Cholas. The Kakaityas also ruled this state in 13th century and they established their capital at Warangal. This dynasty had to face several Muslim invasions. Later on, after the demolition of Hampi, the kings of Hindu Vijayanagar kingdom, shifted their base to Chandragiri near Tirupati.

* The Muslim Expansion

The Kakatiya dynasty ended in 1323, when the Tughlak Sultan of Delhi captured the Kakatiya ruler. After the death of Kakatiya empire, four local kingdoms arose out of the old Kakatiyan empire. One of these kingdoms was Vijayanagar. This empire was a strong empire which rose against the Muslim expansion for more than 200 years. Vijayanagar kings fought bravely with Muslim sultanates in the north, which was attacked by the invaders time and again. In order to weaken the Vijayanagar empire, many sultans joined one another. Finally a grand alliance of the sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bihar was formed against Vijayanagar. Thus, the Vijayanagar army was defeated on 23rd January, 1565 by the Deccan sultans at the battle of Talikota.

Subsequently, in the mid 16th century, the Muslim Qutb Shahi dynasty emerged. The foundation of the modern city of Hyderabad was laid by the Qutub Shahis of Golcunda. They were defeated by the son of the Moghal emperor Aurangzeb in 1687, who seized Golconda. He appointed Asaf Jah the governor of Deccan. Later, when the Mughal Empire was decaying under Aurangzeb's successors, the Asaf Jahis were collecting power to become independent rulers under the title of Nizam. Five years after the death of Aurangzeb, in 1707, Hyderabad was declared independent by its Viceroy and thus, established the Asaf Jahi dynasty of Nizams. The Nizams helped the British against Tipu Sultan of Mysore and therefore they were rewarded a certain degree of autonomy even at the timem, when the British dominated all India. The Nizams were also involved in the Anglo-French wars in the Deccan. But, finally they had enter into a subsidiary alliance with the British in 1800.

* Post-Independence

Andhra Pradesh is one of the first states in India which was formed only on the linguistic basis. After India's independence, the andhras, that is, the Telugu-speaking people (although Urdu is widely spoken in Hyderabad) were distributed in about 21 districts. Out of them 9 were in the Nizam's Dominions and 12 in the Madras Presidency. But after an agitation, on October 1, 1953, 11 districts of the Madras State were consolidated to form a new andhra State with Kurnool as capital. Later, on November 1, 1956 the State Reorganization Commission recommended to enlarge the andhra State by adding nine districts which were in the Nizam's Dominion. The city of Hyderabad, became the capital of the enlarged Andhra Pradesh, which was also the capital of the Nizam.

Indian Government History

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. The Constitution of India was formed on 26 January 1950. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary.

THE LEGISLATURE

The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and has most of the executive powers. He (or she) is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time.

India has a parliamentary form of government based on universal adult franchise. The executive authority is responsible to the elected representatives of the people in Parliament for all its decisions and actions. Sovereignty rests ultimately with the people. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President.

Rajya Sabha (Council of States):

The Council of States consists of not more than 238 members, of whom the President of India nominates 12 and the rest are elected. The Rajya Sabha is not subject to dissolution, with one-third of its members retiring at the end of every second year. The elections to the Council are indirect. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term

Lok Sabha (House of the People):

The Lok Sabha consists of 552 members, 2 of whom may be of the Anglo-Indian community appointed by the President, if they are not adequately represented. The people of India directly elect the members of the Lok Sabha. The 552-member Lok Sabha is elected directly for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. Any Indian citizen above the age of eighteen is allowed to vote. A policy of adult franchise through a secret ballot is exercised.Recently the system of electronic voting has been introduced to enable a more economic and fair election process. Each state has a fixed number of seats allotted and each Lok Sabha seat has a clearly defined area. Unless dissolved sooner, the term of the House is five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. The Lok Sabha elects its own presiding officer, the Speaker.

The Council of Ministers:

The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime minister, who is the leader of the party with a majority or of a coalition. The council of ministers consists of the Cabinet Ministers, the Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers.

THE EXECUTIVE

The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature.

The President of India is the Head of the State and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He is elected by an electoral college composed of members of both the Houses of Parliament (Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha) and the legislatures of the constituent States. The President holds office for five years and can be re-elected. The President does not normally exercise any constitutional powers on his own initiative. These are exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, which is responsible to the popularly elected Parliament.

The Vice-President of India is elected jointly by the members of both the Houses of Parliament. The person enjoying support of the majority in the Lok Sabha is appointed Prime Minister by the President. The President appoints other ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister can remain in office only as long as he or she enjoys majority support in Parliament.

THE JUDICIARY

India's independent judiciary, consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both, original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to by the President. The Constitution also provides for independent organisations such as the Election Commission of India, Comptroller and Auditor General of India and the Attorney General of India.

The judiciary is independent of the executive. It is the guardian and interpreter of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal, standing at the apex of a single unified system for the whole country. Each State has its own High Court. A uniform code of civil and criminal laws applies to the whole country.

The States

The States have their own Legislative Assemblies and in certain cases a second chamber. All members of the Legislative Assemblies are elected by universal adult franchise. The heads of the States are called Governors. Appointed by the President, they normally exercise the same powers in the States as the President does in the Union government. As in the Central Government, each State has a Cabinet headed by the Chief Minister responsible to the elected State Legislature.

Election Commission

The electoral machinery is centralized in an independent statutory body called the Election Commission. The Commission is responsible for the 'superintendence, direction and control' of the electoral rolls for all elections to Parliament and to the State Legislatures and also for conducting the elections.

West Bengal

West Bengal is a state in Eastern India. It stretches from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. It is bounded on the north by Sikkim and Bhutan and to its east it has Assam and Bangladesh. On the south it has the Bay of Bengal and in the west it has Bihar, Orissa and Nepal. The state lies between 27°13'15" and 21°o25'24" north latitudes and 85°48'20" and 89°53'04" east longitudes. It has an area of about 88,752.Sq.km. West Bengal was created as a constituent state of the Indian union on 15 August 1947 as the result of partition of the undivided British Indian province of Bengal into West Bengal. It has nineteen districts.

Kolkatta (Calcutta) is the capital of West Bengal and is one of the largest cities in India. Bengali is the official language of the state. The exact origin of the word “bangla” or Bengal” is yet to be known, though it is believed to have been derived from the Dravidian speaking tribe “Banga”. During the Vedic age Bengal was known as Vanga and was the habitat of people belonging to different races. Remnants of the Bengal region date back to 4000 years ago, when the region was occupied by Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austro-Asiatic people. Bengal was one of the four main kingdoms of India during the time of Buddha. From the 3rd to the 6th centuries, it served the kingdom of Magadha. The first recorded independent kind of Bengal was Shashanka.

The land is mostly plain except the northern region, which comes under the Himalayan mountain range. On the basis of landforms, the state can be divided into the following regions:

* Darjeeling Himalayan hill region
* Terai region
* North Bengal plains
* Rarh region
* Coastal plain
* Sunderbans
* Western plateau and high lands
* Ganges delta

At the time of partition Bengal was split into East Bengal and West Bengal. East Bengal became the eastern wing of Pakistan and later, with the disintegration of that country, Bangladesh. West Bengal became a state of India with its largest city, Calcutta, as its capital. The state is long and narrow, running from the delta of the Ganges-river system at the Bay of Bengal in the south to the heights of the Himalayas at Darjeeling in the north. There is not a great deal of interest in the state apart from these two extremes — Calcutta, all noise, confusion and squalor, at one end and Darjeeling, serene and peaceful at the other. Nevertheless the intrepid traveller will find a number of places to consider visiting, either south of Calcutta on the Bay of Bengal or north along the route to Darjeeling.

The region that is now West Bengal was part of a number of empires and kingdoms during the past two millennia. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and the city of Calcutta, now Kolkata, served for many years as the capital of British India. A hotbed of the Indian independence movement through the early 20th century, Bengal was divided in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities, West Bengal—a state of India, and East Bengal, a part of the new nation of Pakistan. Following India's independence in 1947, West Bengal's economic and political systems were dominated for many decades by Marxism, Naxalite movements and trade unionism.

West Bengal is known for its position among the leading industrialized states of India. There are over 10000 registered factories in the state. Tea, Steel, Jute, Sugar, Chemical, Fertilizers, Medicines and Pharmaceuticals are some of the important industries in the state. The state government has opened 'Shilpa bandhu', a single window agency for providing investors with all kinds of assistance in setting up and running industrial unWomen plucking leaves in tea gardensits. The agriculture of the state mainly constitutes crops such as rice, maize, pulses, oil seeds, wheat, barley, potatoes and vegetables. Kolkatta is a major hub for the Information Technology. Real estate, financial consultancies, travel and tourism and hotel industry are some other services that contribute to the state economy. Calcutta city is noted as a major centre for industries including the jute industry. Other Major industrial towns are Asansol, Bankura, Baharampu, Durgapur and Malda.

Uttaranchal-Location

Uttaranchal is a beautiful North Indian city, which was formerly a part of the state of Uttar Pradesh. The state shares common boundaries with Tibet (China) to the north and Nepal to the east, Himachal Pradesh to the west and Uttar Pradesh (of which it formed a part before 2000) in the south. Uttaranchal, formerly known as Uttarakhand came into being on Nov 9th, 2000 as the 27th state of India. The co-ordinates of Uttarakhand are 28° 43' N to 31° 27' N (Latitude) and 77° 34' E to 81° 02' E (Longitude). It has an area of about 63,157 square km. The state is divided into 13 Districts.

Dehra Dun is the capital of uttaranchal. Dehra Dun is one of the most beautiful resort in the submountain tracts of India, known for its salubrious climate and scenic surroundings. Doon, aside often called, has been a favorite setting ground of the elit for nearly two centuries through its history steches back to many millennia. The name Dehradun appears to be a collection of two word "dera" acmping ground, the Drnocharaya the common Guru of the Pandavas and Kaurava of the Mahabharat and the illustrious son of goddess Ganga, set up an ashram here, near the village of Dwara to perform his devotions at a lonely spot. The place came to be know as Dron Ashram, which eventually became Dun.

Uttaranchal is popularly known as “Dev Bhoomi” or the “Land of Gods”, the stunning views of Uttaranchal speak for themselves. The holy rivers of Ganga and Yamuna find their origin in this beautiful city. One of the most attractive features about Uttaranchal is its salubrious setting, coupled with the tranquil and spectacular surroundings where one gets ample chance to discover his soul. The most holy rivers Ganga, Yamuna and scores of other rivers originate in Uttaranchal.

Uttaranchal finds mention in several ancient Hindu scriptures in the form of various names and has an equal historical importance as its mythology. The region is traditionally referred to as Uttarakhand in Hindu scriptures and old literature, a term which derives from Sanskrit uttara meaning north, and khand meaning country or part of a country.

Uttaranchal is also famous for its Shopping centers which include Dehradun, Nainital and Mussoorie. The experience of shopping in Dehradun and Nainital is very different from other places of the country. The alpine and tropical rainforests that cover most parts of the state make natural habitats of some of the best-known wildlife creatures. Many national parks and sanctuaries are located Uttarakhand such as the Jim Corbett National Park (the oldest national park of India), Valley of Flowers National Park, Nanda Devi National Park, Rajaji National Park, Govind Pashu Vihar National Park and Gangotri National Park.

Recent developments in the region include initiatives by the state government to capitalise on handloom and handicrafts, the burgeoning tourist trade as well as tax incentives to lure high-tech industry to the state. The state also has big-dam projects, controversial and often criticised in India, such as the very large Tehri dam on the Bhagirathi-Bhilangana rivers, conceived in 1953 and about to reach completion. Uttarakhand is also well known as the birthplace of the Chipko environmental movement, and a myriad other social movements including the mass agitation in the 1990s that led to its formation.

Uttar Pradesh-Location

Uttar Pradesh is a state located in the Northern part of India. It shares an international border with Nepal to the north along with the Indian state of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh to the north-west, Haryana, Delhi and Rajasthan on the west, Madhya Pradesh on the south, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand on the south east and Bihar on the east. It is situated between 23° 52'N and 31° 28' N latitudes and 77° 3' and 84° 39'E longitudes. This is the fourth largest state in the country . It has an area of about 113,673 square miles (294,411 square km).

The administrative and legislative capital of Uttar Pradesh is Lucknow. Hindus and Muslims together constitute above 98% of the State's population. The remaining nearly 2% include Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists and Christians, and also the tribal population. Hindi is the official language of the state.

Uttar Pradesh has an important place in the culture of India; it is considered to be the birthplace of Hinduism, has been the ancient seat of Hindu religion, learning and culture, and has many important sites of Hindu pilgrimage. The State is also important to Buddhism since its early days. The Chaukhandi Stupa marks the spot where Buddha met his first disciples. The Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath commemorates Buddha's first sermon. Also the town of Kushinagar is where Gautama Buddha died.

Historically the state has also been a centre stage for great events. Over two thousand years ago this was a part of Ashoka's great Buddhist empire. More recently it was part of the Moghul Empire and for some years Agra was its capital. Today, of course, Agra is famed for that most perfect of Moghul master pieces, the Taj Mahal. More recently still it was in Uttar Pradesh that the Mutiny broke out in 1857 (at Meerut) and some of its most dramatic (Lucknow) and unfortunate (Kanpur) events took place here.

The area has undergone several different definitions, nomenclatures and territorial demarcations since the early 19th century, i.e. after the British East India Company had established its supremacy in the Gangetic plains. In 1833 the then Bengal Presidency of the Company was divided into two parts, one of which became Presidency of Agra; in 1836 the Agra area was named North-Western Provinces and placed under a Lieutenant Governor by the Company. In 1877, the two provinces of Agra and Oudh (Oudh was occupied by the Company, in 1858), were placed under one Colonial administrator of the British Crown; he was called Lieutenant Governor of the North-Western Provinces and Chief Commissioner of Oudh. In 1902 the name was changed to United Provinces of Agra and Oudh with Lieutenant Governor of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh as administrator; in 1921 Lieutenant Governorship was elevated to Governorship and the name of the province was changed to United Provinces of British India. In 1935, the name was shortened to United Provinces. On independence from the British colonial rule in 1947, the princely states of Rampur, Banares and Tehri-Garwal were merged into the United Provinces. In 1950, the name of United Provinces was changed to Uttar Pradesh. In 1999 a separate Himalayan state, Uttaranchal, (now named Uttarakhand), was carved out of Uttar Pradesh.

80 percent of the population of Uttar Pradesh works in agriculture. The state is India's largest producer of food grains, sugarcane, and oil seeds. About 10 million to 13 million hectares.Other potatoes, cotton, tobacco, and jute are also grown. Major industrial towns are Lucknow, Agra, Aligarh, Bareilly, Meerut, and Allahabad and Kanpur, which is its largest city.

Tripura-Location

Tripura is a state in northeast India. It is the second most smallest state of the Indian Nation. It has disputed borders and is surrounded by Bangladesh on the north, south, and west. The Indian states of Assam and Mizoram lie to the east. The State lies approximately between the latitudes 22° 56' , and 24° 32'North and between longitudes 91° 0' and 92° 22' East. Tripura has an area of about 4,051 sq. mi. or 10,491.69 km². It is divided into three districts. The principle hill ranges of Tripura are Sakham Tlang, Langtarai, Athara Mura and Bara Mura. The South Tripura District is bounded on the North by Dhalai district and West Tripura District, while on the other sides by international border with Bangladesh.

Agartala is the capital of Tripura. The most prominent fact about Tripura is that Initially, an Union Territory but in the year 1972 the status of Tripura was elevated to a full fledged state. There is a diverse ethnic element in the state which involves two major racial groups, they are the Indo-Aryans represented by the Bengali community and the Indo-Mongoloid group comprising of the Reangs, the Jamatis, the Mogh, the Lushai, the Tripuris, the Noatias, the Kukis, the Halams, and the Chakma. The main language spoken is Bengali. Speaking about Tripura as a state, it is divided into three Districts and ten sub- divisions, which includes:

1. Tripura West with Agartala as its headquarter
2. Tripura North with Kailasahar as its headquarter
3. Tripura South which has Udaipur as its headquarter.

The first mention about Tripura can be found in the Mahabharata and also in the pillar inscription of Asoka. Before Tripura was merged with the Union of India it was a princely state and was ruled by the Manikya dynasty for 3000 years. Udaipur was the capital of Princely Tripura but later under King Krishna Manikya the capital was shifted to old Agartala and it was only in the 19th Century that the present city of Agartala became the capital of the state of Tripura. The most important historical fact about Tripura is its merger with India in 1949, after the Ganamukti Parishad movement.

The chief occupation of the population in the state is agriculture. The principal crops are paddy, wheat, jute, sugar cane, potato, turmeric, coconut and oil seeds. Handloom weaving is the single largest industry in Tripura. Bamboo Handicrafts also make a major contribution to the state economy. Some quality timber like Sal, Garjan, Teak, Gamar are found abundantly in the forests of the State. The service sector comprises only real estate, insurance and tourism industry.

The very first thing that one notices about Tripura is its natural beauty and its picturesque landscape. The rolling hills, dales, lush green valleys all add an extra dimension to ones understanding about Tripura. The climate of the District is mostly warm and is characterized by a humid summer and a dry cool winter with plenty of rains during July to October. Rainfall is received from the South -West Monsoon, which normally breaks in the month of May. Hailstorm generally occurs during the month of April & May, occasionally causing damage to the field crops. Autumn and Spring are of very short duration. Average annual rainfall in the district is about 2000 mm and the temperature varies between a maximum of 35.23° and a minimum of 7.43° Celsius. The variation in temperature is much lower during the rains than during any other season.

Tamil Nadu-Location

Tamil Nadu is located in the south eastern side of Indian peninsula with Kanyakumari or Cape Comorin as the southernmost tip of the land. It is surrounded by Andhra Pradesh from the North, Karnataka and Kerala from the west, Indian Ocean from the south and Bay of Bengal from the East. The Eastern and Western Ghats (mountain ranges) run along eastern and western borders of the state and meet at Sittlingi in Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu. The Western Ghats, bordering Tamil Nadu, breaks only at two points - Palakkad (25 km wide gap) and Shencottah, which connect the state with Karnataka and Kerala. Tamilnadu, the 11th largest state lies between the northern latitude of 8.5" and 13.35" and the eastern longitude of 76.15" and 80.20". The area of the state is about 130,058 sq. kms. there are 32 districts of Tamil Nadu.

The capital and largest city is Chennai and is formerly known as Madras. The state was formed in the year 1969. The main language spoken here is Tamil. The main religions in the state are Hinduism, Christianity, Islam and Jainism. Tamil Nadu was once the home of four Tamil Kingdoms like Chera, Pandya, Pallava and Chola from 1st - 9th century AD. Their ruling period was known as the golden age of Tamil Nadu during which Art, Music as well as trade & agriculture reached its zenith. It is the leading producer of Agricultural products. Tamilnadu is home to numerous Temples, Pilgrim Centers, Hill Stations, Beaches etc. Tamil Nadu is referred as "Land of Temples".

The history of the Tamils presents an exciting pageant of a powerful civilization whose origin dates back to ancient times. Tamils belong to the Dravidian race and were the first major occupants of the country and settled in the north-western part of India long before the coming of the Indo-Aryans. Excavations have revealed that the features of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization bore a strong resemblance to this race. Later with the advent of the Aryans, the Dravidians were pushed back into the deep south where they ultimately settled.

The Sangam literature is the basis of Tamil History, culture and organisations from the 3rd century AD. The Cholas , the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Cheras had their influence on Tamil Nadu and established their kingdoms. The Pallavas established their reign at Kanchipuram in about the 4th century Ad. They held power over the land of the Tamils from 6th and 9th centuries. At the end of the 9th century the Cholas established themselves they extended their empire and established contacts in South East Asia.

In the 13 the century the Pandyas dominated. The establishment of the Vijayanagar empire brought the downfall of the Pandyas. This empire ruled till the 16th century preserving and promoting Hindu culture. The Muslim powers influenced this region politically. The Marathas also influenced Madurai and Thanjavur till the advent of the English who wrested power from the French. During the 17th and the 18th centuries, conflicts between the trading companies of Europe arose for control of the major parts in the east. The British managed to control this region in the 19th century. This region was under the domain of the East India Company and continued till independence after which the state of Tamil Nadu was formed. The region under the jurisdiction of the Madras Presidency formed into a single unit and named Tamil Nadu in 1969.

Sikkim-Location

Sikkim is a state in northeastern India which is located on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Sikkim is bounded on the north and northeast by Tibet Autonomous Region of China, on the southeast by Bhutan, on the south by the Indian state of West Bengal, and on the west by Nepal. Sikkim lies between longitude 88° 03'40" to 88° 57'19" East and from latitude 27° 0'47" to 28° 07'34" North. It became the 22nd state of India on April 26,1975. It has an area of about 2,740 square miles (7,096 square km). There are 440 villages, eight towns and four districts in Sikkim. It is the least populous state in India and the second-smallest in area after Goa.

Gangtok is the capital of Sikkim. The state has three major ethnic groups, namely Lepchas, Bhutias and Nepalis. It is the only state in India with an ethnic Nepalese majority. The official language of the state is English, but there is a sizable population that converses in Nepali (the lingua franca of the state), Lepcha, Bhutia, and Limbu.

Sikkim first came under British influence in 1817. Although the British later acquired territory and political control over the region, Sikkim remained an independent buffer between British India and Tibet. The Tibetans started to emigrate into Sikkim during the 15th and 16th centuries due to religious strife between the various Lamaist sects at that time. In Tibet itself the yellow hat sect - the Sakya-pa to which the Dalai Lama belongs — gradually gained the upper hand whereas in Sikkim the red hat sect — Nying-ma-pa — remained in control and was, until the country became a part of India, the official state religion. Though the Lepchas originally retreated to the more remote regions in the face of the waves of Tibetan immigrants a blood brotherhood was eventually engineered between their leader, Thekong Tek, and the Bhutyas leader, Khye-Bumsa, and the heavy hand of spiritual and temporal authority imposed on the anarchistic Lepchas. The union generated a good deal of suspicion between the two groups particularly when the Lepchas were persuaded to bring all their literature and totems to a ceremony where it was destroyed by the Tibetans. Having imposed their control over the Lepchas, the Dalai Lama in Lhasa appointed Pen-choo Namgyal as the first king of Sikkim in 1641. At this time the country included the whole of the area bounded by the present state plus a part of eastern Nepal, the Chumbi Valley (Tibet), the Ha Valley (Bhutan) and the Terai foothills from the present border down to the plains of India including Darjeeling and Kalimpong.

Sikkim has a booming economy dependent on agriculture and tourism. Economy of Sikkim is agriculture. cardamom (an Indian spice), oranges, apples, and potatoes are grown for export. Barley, wheat, maize (corn), and rice are also important. Major industrial towns are Gangtok and Darjeeling. The climate ranges from subtropical to high alpine. Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest peak, is located on the border of Sikkim with Nepal. Sikkim is a popular tourist destination owing to its culture, scenic beauty and biodiversity.

Rajasthan-Location

Rajasthan is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. It is located in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. It is bounded on the west and northwest by Pakistan, on the north and northeast by the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, on the east and southeast by the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, and on the southwest by the state of Gujarat. Rajasthan is divided into 33 districts and seven divisions. After independence Rajasthan was organised into a state in 1956. It has an area of about 132,139 square miles (342,239 square km).

The capital of Rajasthan is Jaipur, popularly known as the Pink City. It is gifted with natural beauty, a great history, splendid forts & palaces, colourful festivals & fairs, lively culture, varied landscape and thick forests. Most area of Rajasthan is encompassed by Great Indian Desert (Thar Desert), which has an edge paralleling the Sutlej-Indus river valley along its border with Pakistan. The Tropic of Cancer passes through its southern tip in the Banswara district. Rajasthani is the official language. It consists of five prime dialects i.e. Marwari, Dhundhari, Mewari, Mewati and Hadauti. It is derived from Apabhramsa, with all its linguistic and orthographical peculiarities. Rajasthani as a language of literature suffered a great set back during the British period.

The word Rajasthan means the 'Land of Kings'. This is the home of the Rajputs, a group of warrior clans who have controlled this part of India for a thousand years with a code of chivalry and honour akin to that of the mediaeval European knightsj) The Rajputs were never a united forced like the Marathas of central India; when they were not warring against outsiders they were generally squabbling amongst themselves. Thus they were never a real opposition to the Moghuls but their bravery and sense of honour were un-paralled.

The Rajput warriors would fight on against all odds and, when no hope was left, the women and children would commit suicide by marching into a funeral pyre in a ritual known as jauhar. Meanwhile the men would don the saffron robes of rejoicing worn at weddings and ride forth to certain death. Over and again this grim tale would unfold as stronger forces attacked the Rajputs. In Chittorgarh's long history three times the women consigned themselves to the flames while the men rode out to martyrdom. It's hardly surpising that Akbar persuaded Rajputs to lead his army or that Aurangzeb clashed unsuccessfully with them.

Under the British Rajasthan continued as a collection of princely states under the collective name of Rajputana, each with its own Maharaja. Independent India combined them with Ajmer to make Rajasthan. Huge, often battle scarred, forts dominate almost every town in Rajasthan. They're a clear reminder of the state's warlike past. And what forts they are — battlements, turrets, massive walls and inside palaces of amazing luxury and whimsical charm. They're redolent of that impossibly romantic Rajput sense of honour and bravery above all.

Rajasthan's economy is mainly agricultural; millet, wheat, maize (corn), and cotton are grown. Cotton mills and cement.industries produce textiles, chemicals, nylon, precision instruments, calcium carbide, and caustic soda. Handicrafts earn foreign exchange. Oil has been found in Rajasthan, and other mineral deposits include gypsum. Major industrial towns are Jaipur, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Ajmer, and Kota. Population of Rajasthan includes Rajput, Bhil, Minas, and other ethnic groups.

Punjab-Location

Punjab is a state in Northwest India. It situated in the northwestern corner of the country. The Indian state borders the Pakistani province of Punjab to the west, Jammu and Kashmir to the north, Himachal Pradesh to the northeast, Haryana to the south and southeast and Rajasthan to the southwest. It has an area of about 19,445 square miles (50,362 square km). The state is located between 29° 30' N to 32° 32' N latitude and between 73° 55' E to 76° 50' E longitude.

Punjab's capital is Chandigarh, which is administered separately as a Union Territory since it is also the capital of neighbouring Haryana. Punjab state lies between the great systems of the Indus and Ganges rivers.Punjab consists mainly of Punjabis, Jats, and Rajputs.The majority of the population is Sikh, the largest minority is Hindu, and a very small percentage is Muslim, Buddhist, Christian.

The history of Punjab dates back to 7000 B.C. The earliest human civilization known as the Indus valley civilization is believed to have been established in this region. The earliest signs of human activity were also started in this period. The Indus valley civilization grew from small village and settlements to highly refined urban life. At its height, around 3000 B.C., it boasted the splendid cities of Harappa (Near present Day Sahiwal in West Punjab) and Mohenjo Daro in the lower Indus valley. It was in about 900B.C that the battle of Kurukshetra mentioned in the Epic Mahabharata was believed to have taken place in Kurukshetra. During this period the region formed small principalities ruled by chieftains.

In 321 B.C. Alexander invaded this region and asked all the chieftains to surrender their power. The next was the reign of Chandragupta Maurya that lasted till about 1st century A.D. By 318 A.D. the Gupta dynasty exercised their influence. They were followed by the Huns in about 500A.D.

By 1000A.D the Muslims invaded Punjab led by Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1030 A.D. the Rajputs gained control of this territory. In about 1192A.D the Ghoris defeated the Chauhans and ruled till the establishment of the Mughal rule, a spirit of religious liberation led to the rise of the Militant Sikh power.

Punjab subsequently came under the reign of various Muslim rulers until the victorious entry of the Mughals in 1526 Under the Mughals the province enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity for more than 200 years. Punjab came under British occupation in 1849, after the British victory over the Sikhs. When the Indian subcontinent received its independence in 1947, Punjab was divided into two parts, i.e. Pakistan and India, with the larger western portion becoming part of Pakistan. In 1966 the Indian smaller half was further divided into three: Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. The present provincial boundaries were established in 1970.

Agriculture is the largest industry in Punjab, it is the largest single provider of wheat to India. Others major industries include the manufacture of scientific instruments, electrical goods, financial services, machine tools, textiles, sewing machines, sports goods, starch, tourism, fertilizers, bicycles, garments, and the processing of pine oil and sugar. Other crops include corn, rice, millet, barley, and edible seeds, together with cotton, sugarcane, potatoes, and oilseeds. manufacture of textiles, sewing machines, sporting goods, starch, fertilizers, bicycles, scientific instruments, electrical goods, and machine tools. Major industrial towns are Bhatinda, Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Jullundur, Amritsar.

Orissa-Location

Orissa is the ninth largest state of India. It is located on the southeastern fringes of the country. The state is is surrounded by West Bangal on the north-east, Jharkhand (formerly part of Bihar) on the north, Chhatisgarh (formerly part of Madhya Pradesh) on the west and Andhra Pradesh on the south, while the Bay of Bengal washes its shores on the east. The geographical area of the state is 1,55,707 sq. km. It is located between the parallels of 17 degree 49'E and 22° 34'N latitudes and the meridians of 81 degree 27'E and 87degree 29'E longitudes.

Bhubaneshwar is the capital of the state. It is the eleventh largest by population. The modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April 1936 as a province in British India, and consists, predominantly of Oriya speakers. 1 April is therefore celebrated as Utkal Divas (Odisha Day). It got its final shape on January 1, 1949 when Mayurbhanj, the last among the princely states, merged in it. Odia is the official and most widely spoken language. Odisha has a relatively unindented coastline (about 480 km long) and lacks good ports, except for the deepwater facility at Paradip. The narrow, level coastal strip, including the Mahanadi River delta supports the bulk of the population. The interior of the state is mountainous and sparsely populated. Deomali at 1672 m is the highest point of the state.

In 1568 Orissa lost its independence to the Afghan rulers of Bengal and then became part of the Mughal Empire. When the Mughal Empire declined in the 18th century, part of Orissa remained under the Bengal Nawabs, but the greater part passed to the Marathas. Orissa's hazy past comes into focus with the reign of Kalinga. In 260 BC he was defeated by Ashoka, the great Indian emperor, but the bloody battle left such a bitter taste with Ashoka that he converted to Buddhism and spread that gentle religion far and wide. Buddhism soon declined in Orissa, however, and Jainism held sway until Buddhism reasserted itself in the 2nd century AD. By the 7th century AD Hinduism had, in turn, supplanted Buddhism and Orissa's golden age was in full swing.

Under the Kesari and Ganga kings the Orissan culture flourished and countless temples from that classical period still stand today. The Orissans managed to defy the Moslem rulers in Delhi until the region finally fell to the Moghuls during the 16th century. Many of Bhu-baneswar's temples were destroyed at that time. Today Orissa is tapping the hydro-electric potential of its many rivers and fledgling industries are being started but the state is still a region of green fields and small villages.

Orissa's economy is predominantly agricultural with most of the population engaged in raising rice. Other agricultural products are pulses (legumes), cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, and turmeric. Among the livestock raised are buffalo and other cattle, sheep, and goats. Fish is largely exported. Major industrial towns are Raurkela, Haldia, Kharagpur, Sambalpur, Cuttack and Bhubaneshwar.

Orissa is home to a large number of tourist attractions. Odisha is home to the Hirakud Dam, one of the longest dams in the world. Orissa has several popular tourist destinations. Puri, with the Jagannatha's temple near the sea (famous for Rath Yatra or the Car Festival), and Konark, with the Sun Temple, are visited by thousands of tourists every year. The Jagannatha Temple of Puri, The Sun Temple of Konarka, The Lingaraja Temple of Bhubaneswar, and the Barabati Fort of Cuttack are important in the archaeological history of India.

Nagaland-Location

Nagaland is a hill state located in the extreme northeastern region of India. The state shares common boundaries with Myanmar in the East, state of Assam in the West; Arunachal PradeshManipur in the south. Its Longitude lies between 93°20'E and 95°15' E and Latitude between 25°6' and 27°4' N. It has an area of about 6,401 square miles (16,579 square km).

Nagaland is one of India's smallest states with Kohima as its capital. Nagaland became the 16th state of Indian Union only on 1st December 1963 by an amendment in the constitution of India; prior to that it was a union territory. The state is divided into seven districts: Kohima, Phek, Mokokchung, Wokha, Zunheloto, Twensang and Mon. It is a largely mountainous state. Nagaland is home to some more than 16 different tribes. The Distinctive character and identify of each tribe in terms of Tradition, custom, language and dresses is apparent to the visitors. About 90% of the state’s population is Christian and there are good many number of churches located all in all parts of the state. For this reason Nagaland is popularly known as the "The most Baptist state in the world”.

Nagaland has no early written history. The first references to the people there are found in 13th-century chronicles of the Ahom kingdom of neighbouring Assam. The word Naga designates the many tribes and sub tribes that occupy the area. A very small number of evidence is available about the early history of Nagaland. During the early 19th century the present day Nagaland was under the control of Myanmar. When the British East India Company controlled over Assam, Nagaland became a part of the British India. By 1892, almost all parts of Assam and Nagaland became part of British India except Tuensang area of the present day Nagaland. After India got her independence in 1947, the area under Nagaland and Assam were combined to form a single state known as Assam. But demand of a separate political entity from the Naga tribes became intensified and violent incidents occurred in many parts of the Naga dominated region. In 1957, the Government of India decided to make Nagaland a single administrative unit and hence it became a union territory (UT) which was governed directly by the centre. But it did not put an end to the violence in Nagaland. The vocal movement advocated political union of all Naga tribes and finally the Government of India decided to make Nagaland a separate state of Indian Union. On 1st December 1963, Nagaland got the official status of a state and became the 16th state of India.

The first level democratic elections were held in the state in 1964. But Naga separatists did not stop their violent oppositions and continued demanding for an autonomous status to the state and creation of a single administrative unit comprising of all the Naga inhabited areas spanning across some of the north eastern states. The first insurgencies were declared in the state in early 1980s. For some time peace restored in the region but again there has been ongoing conflict between rebel groups since the late 1990s. The cease fire has been declared in the stage since 1st August 2000 and peace talks are in progress.

Nagaland’s climate is pleasant throughout the year, making it one of the favoured tourist destinations in the north eastern region. There are ample opportunities for adventurous tourists as it is ideal for trekking, rock climbing, and jungle camping. It also offers limitless exploration possibilities in its lush and verdant sub-tropical rain forests which are also a treasure trove of a plethora of medicinal plants. Agriculture is the most important economic activity in Nagaland. Principal crops include rice, corn, millets, pulses, tobacco, oil seeds, sugarcane, potatoes and fibres. Other economy boosters are Forestry, Cottage industries, Insurance, Real estate and Tourism. Major industrial towns are Angami, Ao, Sema, Konyak, and Chakesang.